Interpenetrating networks with covalent and ionic crosslinks

ABSTRACT

The invention features a composition comprising a self-healing interpenetrating network hydrogel comprising a first network and a second network. The first network comprises covalent crosslinks and the second network comprises ionic or physical crosslinks. For example, the first network comprises a polyacrylamide polymer and second network comprises an alginate polymer.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/172,549, filed Jun. 3, 2016 and now U.S. Pat. No. 10,383,980; whichis a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/370,451, filedJul. 2, 2014 and now U.S. Pat. No. 9,387,276; which, in turn, is anational stage application of International Patent Application No.PCT/US2013/020518, filed Jan. 7, 2013; which claims the benefit ofpriority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/583,586, filedJan. 5, 2012, and to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/694,039,filed Aug. 28, 2012. Each of the aforementioned applications isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to hydrogels.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Hydrogels have applications in many areas including tissue engineering,diapers, contact lenses, media for electrophoresis etc. However, thesoft, weak, and brittle behaviors of hydrogels have limited theapplications where mechanical properties are important.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The compositions and methods of the invention provide a solution to manyof the drawbacks of earlier hydrogels. Due to improved mechanical andchemical properties, the hydrogels are useful in applications for whichexisting hydrogels have failed. Performance in existing applications isimproved with the hydrogels described herein. For example, the improvedhydrogels described herein are useful in applications where existinghydrogels lacked sufficient mechanical strength, e.g., in thereplacement of biological tissue such as joint cartilage, spine discs,ligaments, tendons, blood vessels, heart valves, muscle, and skin. Theimproved hydrogels described herein are also useful in soft robotics,multilayer systems, and impact protectors.

The invention features a composition comprising a self-healinginterpenetrating networks (IPN) hydrogel comprising a first network anda second network. The first network comprises covalent crosslinks andthe second network comprises a non-covalent, e.g., ionic or physical,crosslinks. In a preferred embodiment, the first network and the secondnetwork are covalently coupled. The nature of the bonds between firstand second networks is determined using Fourier Transform Infrared(FTIR) spectra or Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The interpenetratingnetwork hydrogel comprises enhanced mechanical properties selected fromthe group consisting of self-healing ability, increased fracturetoughness, increased ultimate tensile strength, and increased rupturestretch. The IPN hydrogel is made by mixing covalently crosslinked firstnetwork and ionically crosslinked second network.

The covalently crosslinked first network and ionically crosslinkedsecond network are mixed at the molecular level. This mixing leads toenhanced mechanical properties of the IPN hydrogels. For example, thefracture toughness was enhanced by following mechanism. The covalentlycrosslinked network bridge the crack and stabilize deformation in thebackground, the chemical interactions between two networks transfer theload over a large zone, and the ionic bonds between ionicallycrosslinked network break and provide inelastic deformation over thislarge zone around the root of the notch.

The interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 30% and 90%water, e.g., about 35%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%,about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, or about 85% water. However,despite the high water content of the gel, it is characterized bysuperior toughness, e.g., at least an order of magnitude tougher thanearlier gels.

For example, the first network comprises a polyacrylamide polymer andsecond network comprises an alginate polymer. Covalently cross-linkednetwork components include polyacrylamide, poly(vinyl alcohol),poly(ethylene oxide) and its copolymers, polyethylene glycol (PEG), andpolyphosphazene. Also, any polymer that is methacrylated (e.g.,methacrylated PEG) could be used in a similar manner. Ionically orphysically cross-linked network components include alginate, chitosan,agarose, self-assembling polypeptides, peptide amphiphiles (all formreversible cross-links due to ionic, hydrophobic or other secondaryinteractions). A preferred component of the ionically crosslinkednetwork includes alginate, which is comprised of (1-4)-linkedb-D-mannuronic acid (M) and a-L-guluronic acid (G) monomers that vary inamount and sequential distribution along the polymer chain. Alginate isalso considered a block copolymer, composed of sequential M units (Mblocks), regions of sequential G units (G blocks), and regions ofalternating M and G units (M-G blocks) that provide the molecule withits unique properties. Alginates have the ability to bind divalentcations such as Ca⁺² between the G blocks of adjacent alginate chains,creating ionic interchain bridges between flexible regions of M blocks.Other examples include polymers that contain alginic acid, pectinicacid, carboxymethyl cellulose, hyaluronic acid, or chitosan. Covalentcrosslinking agents include N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA),methacrylate, carbodiimide crosslinkers [e.g., N,N′-Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC), 1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (ECC)], N-hydroxysuccinimide and N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide,glutaraldehyde, and transglutaminases. Crosslinking agents that promoteionic crosslinks include CaCl₂, CaSO₄, CaCO₃, hyaluronic acid, andpolylysine.

Unlike earlier double network (DN) hydrogels, neither network of the IPNhydrogels described herein is sacrificed upon the application of energyto the network.

The interpenetrating polymer network comprises a fracture toughness thatis about 900 times higher compared to a hydrogel consisting of alginatealone. For example, the fracture toughness is about 800, about 850,about 900, about 950, or about 1,000 times higher compared to a hydrogelconsisting essentially of alginate polymer alone. Alternatively, theinterpenetrating polymer network comprises a fracture toughness that isabout 90 times higher compared to a hydrogel consisting essentially ofacrylamide polymer alone, e.g., about 80, about 85, about 95 or about100 times higher compared to a hydrogel consisting of acrylamide alone.

For example, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises a fracturetoughness value of between 10 J/m² and 9000 J/m². The interpenetratingpolymer network comprises a fracture toughness value of at least 1000J/m², e.g., at least 1500 J/m², at least 2000 J/m², at least 3000 J/m²,or at least 4000 J/m². In preferred embodiments, the interpenetratingpolymer network comprises a fracture toughness value of at least 5000J/m², at least 6000 J/m², at least 7000 J/m², at least 8000 J/m², or atleast 9000 J/m². In one aspect, the fracture toughness of the networkhydrogel is enhanced as follows: the covalently-crosslinked networkbridges the crack and stabilizes deformation in the background, whilethe chemical interactions between the two networks transfer the loadover a large zone, and the ionic bonds between ionically crosslinkednetworks break and provide inelastic deformation over this large zonearound the root of a notch, i.e., a defect such as a crack, tear, or aknife-cut notch.

In order to increase the fracture toughness of the interpenetratingpolymer network, the hydrogel is cured at a temperature of between 20°C. and 100° C., e.g., between 40° C. and 90° C., between 60° C. and 80°C., or about 70° C. For example, the hydrogel is cured at a temperatureof between 20° C. and 36° C., e.g., 21° C., 22° C., 23° C., 24° C., 25°C., 26° C., 27° C., 28° C., 29° C., 30° C., 31° C., 32° C., 33° C., 34°C., or 35° C. In other examples, the curing is carried out at about 50°C. This thermal treatment is performed before free radicalpolymerization. The mixture of alginate and acrylamide is cured at aselected temperature for at least 10 min., 20 min., 30 min., 45 min., 60min, 90 min., 120 min. Typically, the curing or thermal treatment isdone for one hour. This optional step facilitates the formation ofcovalent bonds between the covalently linked acrylamide network and theionically linked alginate network.

The interpenetrating polymer network comprises an ultimate tensilestrength that is about 43.3 times higher compared to a hydrogelconsisting of alginate alone, e.g., about 30, about 35, about 40, about45, or about 50 times higher compared to a hydrogel consisting ofalginate alone. Alternatively, the interpenetrating polymer networkcomprises an ultimate tensile strength that is about 13.8 times highercompared to a hydrogel consisting of acrylamide alone, e.g., about 5,about 10, about 15, or about 20 times higher compared to a hydrogelconsisting of acrylamide alone.

The interpenetrating network hydrogel also comprises a high stretchvalue, e.g., about 21. Thus, the hydrogels are extremely stretchable andtough compared to conventional hydrogels.

In some cases, the interpenetrating polymer network is un-notched, andthe network hydrogel comprises a rupture stretch that is about 19.2times higher compared to a hydrogel consisting of alginate alone, e.g.,about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, or about 30 times highercompared to a hydrogel consisting of alginate alone. Alternatively, theinterpenetrating polymer network is un-notched, and the network hydrogelcomprises a rupture stretch that is about 3.4 times higher compared to ahydrogel consisting of acrylamide alone, e.g., about 2, about 3, about4, or about 5 times higher compared to a hydrogel consisting ofacrylamide alone. For example, the interpenetrating polymer networkhydrogel is un-notched, and the network hydrogel comprises a rupturestretch of about 2 to about 25. In some cases, the interpenetratingpolymer network hydrogel is notched, and the network hydrogel comprisesa critical crack propagation stretch of about 2 to about 17. Stretchvalue (λ) is determined by providing the measured length (under stress,e.g., stretched) divided by the undeformed gauge length.

The polymer ratio between said polyacrylamide polymer and said alginatepolymer is between about 66.67 wt. % and 94.12 wt. %, e.g., about 88.89wt. % or about 85.71 wt. %. In some cases, the ratio between CaSO₄ andalginate is between about 3.32 wt. % and 53.15 wt. %, e.g., about 13.28wt. %. The interpenetrating polymer network comprises aN,N-methylenebisacrylamide(MBAA)/acrylamide weight ratio of betweenabout 0.031 wt. % and 0.124 wt. %.

The interpenetrating polymer network hydrogel comprises a Young'smodulus of about 10.0 kPa to about 300 kPa, e.g., about 25, about 50,about 75, about 100, about 125, about 150, about 175, about 200, about225, about 250, about 275 or about 300 kPa and up to the megaPa range.For example, the interpenetrating network hydrogel comprises an elasticmodulus of about 10.0 kPa with a 2.7 kPa standard deviation. In anotherexample, the IPN hydrogel is characterized by a Young's modulus of about5 megaPa, making it therefore suitable for cartilage repair andreplacement.

In contrast to earlier DN hydrogels, the present network comprises theproperty of self-healing. Earlier double network (DN) gels included astrong network that required a high level of stress to break and aloose, stretchy network. Upon application of stress, the strong networkeventually breaks and is sacrificed, i.e., once it is broken, it cannotbe restored. The present interpenetrating network hydrogels areself-healing, because neither polymer network (ionically crosslinkednetwork or covalently crosslinked network) is sacrificed. Thus, thehydrogel is self-healing, i.e., it is characterized by a mechanicalcycling restoration property, wherein about 30% to 80% energy density ofa first loading is recovered after a time period of rest, e.g., about35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%,about 70%, about 75%, or about 80% energy density of a first loading isrecovered after a time period of rest.

The time period of rest comprises a time period greater than 1millisecond. For example, the rest period comprises a period of greaterthan about 10 seconds and less than 1 day, e.g., about 1 minute, about10 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 1 hour, about 2 hours, about 4hours, about 8 hours, about 12 hours, or about 16 hours, or about 24hours. For example, a time period of rest comprises storage at atemperature greater than 20° C. and less than 80° C., e.g., a storagetemperature of about 80° C. In this manner, the mechanical strength andflexibility properties can be restored an indefinite number of times(e.g., 2, 3, 10, 25, 50, or 100 times or more) by alternating periods ofstress application with rest periods. The interpenetrating polymernetworks hydrogel also fully recovers its original length afterunloading.

The interpenetrating polymer network comprises a constant ratio of 0.1between loss modulus and storage modulus at a frequency of 0.01 Hz to 20Hz

In some examples, the interpenetrating polymer network is homogenousthroughout the entire hydrogel, e.g., at a micron level and at amillimeter level. In other examples, the polymers and or crosslinkdensity if variable throughout the hydrogel, e.g., forming a gradient ofpolymer concentration or crosslink density.

Finally, the interpenetrating network described herein is defectresistant, i.e., the durable gel is not prone to development of tears.The improved hydrogels of the invention are resistant to defects, andeven if a defect occurs, the gel maintains its toughness and does notfail. Preferably, the crosslinking density of the polyacrylamide polymeris between about 0.031 and 0.124 wt.-%, e.g., about 0.062 wt.-%.

An advantage of the interpenetrating network hydrogels described hereinis that they are not cytotoxic to cells over long periods of time, e.g.,3 days, 7 days, 14 days, 28 days 56 days, 112 days, or 224 days.

The biocompatible gels described herein offer significant advantages,particularly in medical applications. For example, drug deliveryhydrogels or cell delivery hydrogels that are used for muscle generationor regeneration are subject to application of energy/stresses. Since thehydrogels described herein are more mechanically robust, more durable,and are characterized by a higher fracture resistance, they are moresuitable for such applications involving muscle tissue. Otherapplications are also improved with the use of the tough hydrogels. Forexample, materials used in surgical procedures (e.g., wraps, meshes),cartilage replacement, joint replacement, orthopedic/orthochondraldefect repair (e.g., bone or cartilage fillers), spinal procedures(e.g., nuclear propulsus spinal surgery), ophthamological uses (e.g.,optically-clear, flexible, durable lenses, contact lens or implantablelens), as well as non-medical uses (e.g., fillers in cosmetic surgicalprocedures).

In addition to clinical uses such as tissue repair and replacement, theIPN hydrogels are also useful in non-medical settings, e.g., infabrication of soft robotics that swim, crawl, fly, or squeeze throughsmall spaces without breaking. The IPN hydrogels are also useful to makeactuators. Other examples include artificial muscles, tunable lenses,actuators and skins for soft robotics, encapsulate protecting layers,stretchable membranes for dielectric actuator, loud speaker membranes,multilayer systems, fiber reinforced tough hydrogel, particle reinforcedtough gel as well as durable filtration systems.

The transitional term “comprising,” which is synonymous with“including,” “containing,” or “characterized by,” is inclusive oropen-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or methodsteps. By contrast, the transitional phrase “consisting of” excludes anyelement, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim. Thetransitional phrase “consisting essentially of” limits the scope of aclaim to the specified materials or steps “and those that do notmaterially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s)” of the claimedinvention.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from theclaims. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific termsused herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one ofordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Althoughmethods and materials similar or equivalent to those described hereincan be used in the practice or testing of the present invention,suitable methods and materials are described below. All publishedforeign patents and patent applications cited herein are incorporatedherein by reference. Genbank and NCBI submissions indicated by accessionnumber cited herein are incorporated herein by reference. All otherpublished references, documents, manuscripts and scientific literaturecited herein are incorporated herein by reference. In the case ofconflict, the present specification, including definitions, willcontrol. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples areillustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-D are a series of photographs showing that a polyacrylamide(PAAm)-alginate hydrogel is extremely stretchable and tough. FIG. 1A isa photograph showing a strip of the hydrogel between two grips. FIG. 1Bis a photograph showing the hydrogel stretched 21 times its initiallength. FIG. 1C is a photograph showing a 2 cm long crack introducedinto the hydrogel in the undeformed state. FIG. 1D is a photographshowing that the crack does not advance when the hydrogel is stretched17 times its initial length. The ratio of the weights of AAm andalginate is 8:1, and water content is 86 wt. %.

FIG. 2 is a line graph showing stress-stretch curves under uniaxialtension. Blue: PAAm-14.05-0.06 SN gel (water content: 88 wt.-%). Darkyellow: Alginate-1.76-13.28 SN gel (water content: 97 wt.-%). Red:PAAm-14.05-0.06/Alginate-1.76-13.28 IPN gel (water content: 86 wt.-%).

FIGS. 3A-D are a series of schematics and line graphs showingexperimental determination of fracture energy. FIG. 3A is a schematicshowing the tearing method to measure the fracture toughness. Thefracture tests were generally performed with 75 mm wide (L), 5 mm long(h₀), 3 mm thick (t) samples. The crack was initiated by a single 40mm-long knife-cut notch. The stretch rate (λ°) was kept constant as2/min. FIG. 3B is a line graph showing the stress-strain curves foruniaxial tensile test (red) and fracture test (blue). The fracturesample has c₀/L=0.47 initial notch. The circle in the fracture graphrepresents onset crack propagation stretch (λ_(c)). The energy densityper unit volume (W) was calculated by integrating the under area of thetensile graph upto the critical stretch (λ_(c)). FIG. 3C is a line graphshowing the effects of the weight ratio of AAm network to the wholepolymer network on stress-strain curves in tensile test. Numbers on thecurves in C denote the value of weight % of AAm monomer to the wholepolymer in gel. FIG. 3D is a line graph showing the effects of theweight ratio of AAm network to the whole polymer network on andtoughness. The value at zero and 100 wt. % are for the alginate and PAAmSN gels, respectively. Samples: PAAm-x₁-0.06/Alginate-x₂-13.28 IPN gelswith a constant water content 86 wt.-%.

FIGS. 4A-C are a series of schematic diagrams and line graphs. FIG. 4Ashows a schematic scenario for the formation of tough gel. The PAAmnetwork has a long enough chain to be stretched to the critical stretchof IPN gel, but the PAAm network is brittle because it has significantstress concentration near the initial flaws and small plastic zone (darkyellow area) size. When the ionically crosslinked alginate networks areadded to the PAAm back bone networks, the alginate network will help todissipate the energy as a plastic deformation without breaking thealginate chain itself. As a result, the plastic behavior of ionicallycrosslinked alginate assist to broaden the plastic zone size and delaythe fracture of the PAAm/alginate IPN gel. FIG. 4B is a line graphshowing stress-strain curves for PAAm/Alginate IPN gels with calciumions (red) and without calcium ions (blue) under uniaxial tension,curves are plotted with PAAm SN gel (dark yellow). Calcium ions, thecrosslinker for alginate network, improved the stretchability andstiffness of PAAm/Alginate IPN gel. Red:PAAm-13.55-0.06/Alginate-2.26-13.28 IPN gel (water content: 86 wt.-%);blue: PAAm-13.55-0.06/Alginate-2.26-0 IPN gel (water content: 86 wt.-%);dark yellow: PAAm-13.55-0.06 SN gel (water content: 88 wt.-%). FIG. 4Cis a line graph showing the loading-unloading curves for PAAm, AlginateSN gels and PAAm/Alginate IPN gel under uniaxial tension. Hysteresis isthe dependence of a system not only on its current environment but alsoon its past environment. Covalently crosslinked PAAm gel shows nohysteresis. Ionically crosslinked alginate gel has huge hysteresis andremains plastic deformation after unloading. PAAm/Alginate IPN gel alsoshows hysteresis and plastic deformation like alginate gel which candissipate the energy during the loading. Maximum stretch and stretchingrate were fixed as λ=1.2 and λ°=2/min, respectively. Blue:PAAm-14.05-0.06 SN gel (water content: 88 wt.-%); dark yellow:Alginate-1.76-13.28 SN gel (water content: 97 wt.-%); red:PAAm-14.05-0.06/Alginate-1.76-13.28 IPN gel (water content: 86 wt.-%).

FIGS. 5A-D are a series of line graphs and a dot plot showing repeatedtensile tests of IPN gels. In FIGS. 5A-C, samples were first loaded toλ=7 (black), and unloaded to the initial length (black) with a stretchrate λ°=2/min. The samples are stored in isothermal hot bathes with thetemperatures of (A) 20° C., (B) 60° C. and (C) 80° C. The secondloadings are followed after keeping the samples in the hot bath for 10secs (olive), 10 mins (violet), 1 hour (dark yellow), 4 hours (blue) and1 day (red). FIG. 5D is a dot plot showing the energy density of 2^(nd)loading is plotted as a function of self-healing time with varioushealing temperature 20° C. (square), 60° C. (triangle) and 80° C.(inverted triangle). The energy density of 1^(st) unloading is plottedas a dashed line also. Samples: PAAm-13.55-0.06/Alginate-2.26-13.28 IPNgel (water content: 86 wt.-%).

FIGS. 6A-C are a series of line graphs. FIG. 6A is a line graph showingthe effects of the weight ratio of MBAAm on stress-strain curves in atensile test. Numbers on the curves in (A) denote the value of y₁, thecrosslinker (MBAAm) concentration in wt.-% with respect to the PAAmnetwork. FIG. 6B is a line graph showing the effects of the weight ratioof MBAAm on critical stretch in fracture test. FIG. 6C is a line graphshowing the effects of the weight ratio of MBAAm on toughness. Samples:PAAm-14.37-y₁/Alginate-1.44-26.57 IPN gels with a constant water content86 wt.-%.

FIGS. 7A-C are a series of line graphs. FIG. 7A is a line graph showingthe effects of the weight ratio of CaSO₄ on stress-strain curves in atensile test. Numbers on the curves in (A) denote the value of y₂, thecrosslinker (CaSO₄) concentration in wt.-% with respect to the alginatenetwork. FIG. 7B is a line graph showing the effects of the weight ratioof CaSO₄ on critical stretch in fracture test. FIG. 7C is a line graphshowing the effects of the weight ratio of CaSO₄ on toughness. Samples:PAAm-14.37-0.06/Alginate-1.44-y₂ IPN gels with a constant water content86 wt.-%.

FIGS. 8A-C are a series of line graphs. FIG. 8A is a line graph showingthe effects of the weight ratio of AAm network to the whole polymernetwork on stress-strain curves in a tensile test. Numbers on the curvesin (A) denote the value of weight % of AAm monomer to the whole polymerin gel. FIG. 8B is a line graph showing the effects of the weight ratioof AAm network to the whole polymer network on critical stretch infracture tests. FIG. 8C is a line graph showing the effects of theweight ratio of AAm network to the whole polymer network on toughness.The value at zero and 100 wt. % are for the alginate and PAAm SN gels,respectively. Samples: PAAm-x_(i)-0.06/Alginate-x₂-13.28 IPN gels with aconstant water content 86 wt.-%.

FIGS. 9A-B are a series of chemical structures and a graph. FIG. 9A is aseries of chemical structures of Alginate and PAAm, and the suggestedstructure of PAAm/Alginate copolymer. FIG. 9B is a graph showing theFTIR spectra of PAAm (blue), Alginate (dark yellow), and PAAm/Alginatecopolymer (red).

FIGS. 10A-D are a series of graphs showing loading-unloading tensiletests with extremely large stretch, demonstrating highly reversibledeformation of PAAm/Alginate IPN gels. FIG. 10A is a graph showing theloading-unloading curves under various tensile deformations. Thestretching rate were fixed as λ°=2 min⁻¹. FIG. 10B is a graph showingthe plastic strain after unloading with respect to maximum appliedstrain as a function of maximum applied stretch. The plastic strainratio was not changed much by changing applied stretch, and only 15%plastic deformations were remained after unloading even after extremestretch λ=13. FIG. 10C and FIG. 10D are a series of line graphs showingrepeated tensile test and fracture test for second cycle, demonstratingself-healing properties of PAAm/Alginate IPN gels. FIG. 10C is a linegraph showing repeated tensile tests of IPN gels. Samples were loaded upto the maximum stretch (λ_(max)) of first cycle and unloaded to theinitial stretch (dark yellow), followed by an immediate second loading(blue) or second loading after 1 day (red). FIG. 10D is a line graphshowing the toughness of second loading of IPN gels as a function ofmaximum stretch of first cycle. Samples:PAAm-13.55-0.06/Alginate-2.26-13.28 IPN gels (water content: 86 wt.-%).

FIG. 11 is a line graph showing damage to the gel after the first cycle.The hybrid gel was first loaded to a certain maximum stretch λ_(max),and was then unloaded to zero force, followed by a second loading. Thefracture energy determined on the second loading Γ_(2nd) was reducedfrom that determined on the first loading first Γ_(1st). Thealginate-to-acrylamide ratio was 1:6. The covalent crosslinker, MBAA,was fixed at 0.0006 the weight of acrylamide. The ionic crosslinker,CaSO₄, was fixed at 0.1328 the weight of alginate. (Error bars, S.D.;n=3).

FIGS. 12A and 12B are line graphs showing recovery of the gel after thefirst loading. Each hybrid gel sample was first loaded to a stretch ofλ=7, and then unloaded. The samples were then stored at a certaintemperature for a period time, followed by a second loading at roomtemperature. Stress-stretch curves are shown for samples stored at: a,20° C.; b, 60° C. The alginate-to-acrylamide ratio was 1:6. The covalentcrosslinker, MBAA, was fixed at 0.0006 the weight of acrylamide. Theionic crosslinker, CaSO₄, was fixed at 0.1328 the weight of alginate.Exemplary weight ratios of acrylamide to (acrylamide plus alginate) arefrom 66.67 wt. % to 94.12 wt. %; exemplary weight ratios ofCaSO₄/Alginate are from 3.32 wt. % to 53.15 wt. %; and, exemplary weightratios of N,N-methylenebisacrylamide/acrylamide are from 0.031 wt. % to0.124 wt. %.

FIGS. 13A-D are line graphs showing that the amount of ioniccrosslinker, CaSO₄, affects the behavior of the hybrid gel. A,Stress-strain curves were measured using unnotched samples of gels ofvarious values of CaSO₄/Alginate (wt %). B, Elastic moduli weredetermined by the initial slopes of the stress-strain curves. C, Thecritical stretches were measured using notched samples of gels. D,Fracture energy varies with the density of the ionic crosslinker. Theweight ratio of alginate to acrylamide was fixed at 1:10, and the watercontent was fixed at 86 wt %. The covalent crosslinker, MBAA, was fixedat 0.0006 the weight of acrylamide. (Error bars, S.D.; n=3).

FIGS. 14A-D are line graphs showing that the amount of covalentcrosslinker, MBAA, greatly affects the behavior of the hybrid gel. A,Stress-strain curves were measured using unnotched samples of gels ofvarious values of MBAA/Acrylamide (wt %). B, Elastic moduli weredetermined from the initial slopes of the stress-strain curves. C, Thecritical stretches were measured using notched samples of gels. D,Fracture energy varies with the concentration of the covalentcrosslinker. The weight ratio of alginate to acrylamide was fixed at1:10, and the water content was fixed at 86 wt %. The ionic crosslinker,CaSO₄, was fixed at 0.1328 the weight of alginate. (Error bars, S.D.;n=3).

FIGS. 15A-D are line graphs showing the mechanical behavior of alginatehydrogels with various crosslinker densities. A, Stress-strain curveswere measured using unnotched samples of gels of various values ofCaSO₄/Alginate (wt %). B, Elastic moduli were calculated fromstress-strain curves. C, The critical stretches were measured usingnotched samples of gels. D, Fracture energy varies with the density ofthe ionic crosslinker (Error bars, S.D.; n=3). Water content was fixedat 97 wt. %. (The solubility of alginate in water is less than 4 wt. %.)

FIGS. 16A-D are line graphs showing the mechanical behavior ofpolyacrylamide hydrogels with various crosslinker densities. A,Stress-strain curves were measured using unnotched samples of gels ofvarious values of MBAA/Acrylamide (wt %). B, Elastic moduli werecalculated from stress-strain curves. C, The critical stretches weremeasured using notched samples of gels. D, Fracture energy varies withthe concentration of the covalent crosslinker. Water content was fixedat 86.4 wt. %. (Error bars, S.D.; n=3).

FIGS. 17A-C are dot plots showing viscoelasticity of alginate,polyacrylamide, and hybrid gels. A, Storage modulus E′. B, Loss modulusE″. C, The ratio between E″ and E′.

FIGS. 18A-B are photomicrographs, FIG. 18C is a three-dimensional graph,and FIG. 18D is a bar graph, which collectively show the homogeneity ofhybrid gel. Fluorescence microscopy of hybrid gel mixed with fluorescentalginate (A; fluoresces green, appears grey in the image) and withoutfluorescent alginate (B; appears dark in the image). C, Elastic modulusmap of hybrid gel. D, Statistical plot of elastic modulus.

FIG. 19A is a series of chemical structures of alginate andpolyacrylamide, and suggested crosslinks between alginate andpolyacrylamide. FIG. 19B is a graph showing FTIR spectra: alginate,polyacrylamide, and alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid. This data shown inthis figure demonstrates crosslinks between alginate and polyacrylamide.

FIGS. 20A-B are line graphs showing the thermal degradation of alginate,polyacrylamide, and alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels. A, Data ofthermogravimetric analysis (TGA). B, Data of differentialthermogravimetry (DTG).

FIGS. 21A-C are diagrams showing synergy between alginate andpolyacrylamide. A, In the polyacrylamide gel, for the notch to turn intoa running crack, only the polyacrylamide chains crossing the crack planeneed to break, and chains elsewhere remain intact. B, In the alginategel, for the notch to turn into a running crack, only the ioniccrosslinks for the chains crossing the crack need to break, and ioniccrosslinks elsewhere remain intact. C, In the hybrid gel, thepolyacrylamide chains bridge the crack and stabilize deformation in thebackground, the chemical interactions between the networks transfer theload over a large zone, and the ionic crosslinks between alginate chainsbreak and provide inelastic deformation over this large zone around theroot of the notch.

FIGS. 22A-B are line graphs showing determination of fracture energy.Two samples of the same gel were tested in tension. One sample wasunnotched, and the other sample was notched. A, The unnotched sample wasused to measure the force-length curve. The area beneath theforce-length curve gave the work done by the force to the unnotchedsample, U(L). B, The notched sample was used to measure the criticaldistance between the clamps, L_(c), when the notch turned into a runningcrack.

FIGS. 23A-B are line graphs showing verification of the pure shear testmethod for extremely stretchy materials with tensile test with variouscrack lengths. A, Force-extension curves for various crack lengths (C)are plotted, the circles in each curve corresponds to the onset of crackpropagation. B, The work done in deforming a test piece with variouscrack lengths was obtained from the area under the force-extension curvewith the selected h values.

FIG. 24A is a schematic figure of the reference state with dimensionsD=15 mm, a_(o)=80 mm, b_(o)=3 mm and current state after deformation areshown. FIG. 24B are photographs showing the double peeling test. PI(Polyimide) strips are attached to the two ends of the specimen tocontrol the deformation in the arms. FIG. 24C is a line graph showingforce-extension curves for various crack lengths (C) are plotted. FIG.24D is a line graph showing the work done in deforming a test piece withvarious crack lengths were obtained from the area under theload-extension curve with selected h values. These figures showverification of the pure shear test method for extremely stretchymaterials with double peeling test method.

FIGS. 25A-C are line graphs showing the effect of initial crack lengthon toughness value. A, Stress-stretch curves for various initial cracklengths, the circles denote the onset of crack propagation. B, Criticalstretch of the sample with various crack lengths normalized to samplewidth. C, Fracture toughness of the sample as a function of pre-cracklength. (Error bars, S.D.; n=3).

FIGS. 26A-C are line graphs showing the effect of sample length ontoughness value. A, Stress-stretch curves for various crack lengths, thecircles denote the onset of crack propagation. B, Critical stretch ofthe sample with various sample lengths normalized with sample width. C,Fracture toughness of the sample as a function of sample length. (Errorbars, S.D.; n=3).

FIGS. 27A-F are schematic diagrams of three types of hydrogels. FIGS.27A and 27D are schematics of an alginate gel depicting the G blocks ondifferent polymer chains forming ionic crosslinks through Ca2+. FIGS.27B and 27E are schematics of a polyacrylamide gel depicting the polymerchains forming covalent crosslinks through MBAA. FIGS. 27C and 27F areschematics of an alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gel depicting the twotypes of polymer networks intertwined.

FIGS. 28A-F are line graphs showing the results of mechanical testsunder various conditions. A, Stress-stretch curves of the three types ofgels, each stretched to rupture. The nominal stress s is defined by theforce applied on the deformed gel divided by the cross-sectional area ofthe undeformed gel. B, The gels were each loaded to a stretch of 1.2,just below the value that would rupture the alginate gel, and were thenunloaded. C, Samples of the hybrid gel were subject to a cycle ofloading and unloading of varying maximum stretch. D, After the firstloading and unloading, one sample was reloaded immediately, and theother sample was reloaded after 1 day. E, Recovery of samples stored at80° C. for different durations of time. F, The work of the secondloading W_(2 nd) normalized by that of the first loading W_(1 st) wasmeasured for samples stored for different periods of time at differenttemperatures. The alginate-to-acrylamide ratio was 1:8 for A and B, andwas 1:6 for C—F. The covalent crosslinker, MBAA, was fixed at 0.0006 theweight of acrylamide for polyacrylamide gel and hybrid gel. The ioniccrosslinker, CaSO₄, was fixed at 0.1328 the weight of alginate foralginate gel and hybrid gel.

FIGS. 29A-D are line graphs showing that the composition greatly affectsthe behavior of the hybrid gel. A, Stress-strain curves of gels ofvarious weight ratios of acrylamide and alginate. Each test wasconducted by pulling an unnotched sample to rupture. B, Elastic moduliwere calculated from stress-strain curves. C, Notched gels of variousacrylamide-to-alginate ratios were pulled to rupture to measure thecritical stretches. D, Fracture energy was plotted as a function of theacrylamide-to-alginate ratio. The covalent crosslinker, MBAA, was fixedat 0.0006 the weight of acrylamide. The ionic crosslinker, CaSO₄, wasfixed at 0.1328 the weight of alginate. (Error bars, S.D.; n=4).

FIG. 30 is a bar chart showing the results of conditioning cell culturemedia by soaking gels in the media for various time points, and thenperforming a WST cytotoxicity assay to determine the effects ofpotential cumulative release or degradation of the gel.

FIG. 31 is a bar chart showing the results of conditioning cell culturemedia by soaking gels in the media for various time points, and thenperforming a WST cytotoxicity assay to determine the effects of“snapshots” of potential cumulative release or degradation of the gel.

FIG. 32 is a bar chart showing the results of conditioning cell culturemedia by soaking gels in the media for various time points, and thenperforming a proliferation assay to determine the effects of potentialcumulative release or degradation of the gel.

FIG. 33 is a bar chart showing the results of conditioning cell culturemedia by soaking gels in the media for various time points, and thenperforming a proliferation assay to determine the effects of “snapshots”of potential cumulative release or degradation of the gel.

FIG. 34 is a series of photomicrographs showing the results ofconditioning cell culture media by soaking gels in the media for 50days, and then performing a live/dead staining assay to determine theeffects of “snapshots” of potential cumulative release or degradation ofthe gel. Live cells appear green, while dead cells appear red.

FIG. 35 is a line graph showing the results of conditioning cell culturemedia by soaking gels in the media for various time points, and thenperforming compression tests using a mechanical testing apparatus todetermine Young's Modulus as a function of soaking time.

FIG. 36 is a dot plot showing the effect of temperature during gellingon hydrogel fracture toughness. The fracture toughness ofpolyacrylamide-alginate hybrid hydrogels was tested with various curingtemperatures.

FIG. 37 is a schematic diagram showing a mechanism of chemical bondformation between two networks.

FIG. 38A is a stress-stretch curve for hybrid gels of LF2040 afterthermal treatment. Dashed lines indicate the first loading and solidlines indicate an immediate second loading. FIG. 38B is a chart showingthe initial elastic modulus measured at various temperatures.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Hydrogels serve as an excellent material which has the potential to beused as natural tissues. However prior to the invention, hydrogels werelimited in their usefulness due to their softness, brittleness, or lackof strength.

Conventional hydrogels do not exhibit high stretchability; for example,an alginate hydrogel ruptures when stretched to about 1.2 times itsoriginal length. Some synthetic elastic hydrogels have achievedstretches in the range 10-20, but these values are markedly reduced insamples containing notches. Described herein is the synthesis ofhydrogels from polymers forming ionically and covalently crosslinkednetworks. Although such gels contain ˜90% water, they can be stretchedbeyond 20 times their initial length, have fracture energies of ˜9,000 Jm², and are characterized by Young's modulus values in the megaPascalrange. Even for samples containing notches, a stretch of 17 isdemonstrated. The gels' toughness is attributed to the synergy of twomechanisms: crack bridging by the network of covalent crosslinks, andhysteresis by unzipping the network of ionic crosslinks. Furthermore,the network of covalent crosslinks preserves the memory of the initialstate, so that much of the large deformation is removed on unloading.The unzipped ionic crosslinks cause internal damage, which heals byre-zipping.

Such tough gels are useful in clinical and non-clinical applications.However prior to the invention, most of the currently availablehydrogels lacked strength, toughness, and frictional properties. Forexample, cartilage, which contains around 75% water, has a fracturetoughness value around 1000 J/m². In contrast, most of the conventionalhydrogels have the toughness in the range of 1˜100 J/m². In the case ofactuators and artificial muscles, strong gels are ideal candidates toserve as muscle-like materials because they should be mechanicallystrong to carry a significant load. Also, strong gels are needed in drugdelivery to change the design and use of capsules and patches.Implantable long-term drug delivery devices also need gels with enhancedmechanical properties.

There is an increasing demand for hydrogels with enhanced mechanicalproperties, but conventional hydrogels have poor mechanical properties.High toughness of naturally occurring gels is an indication that it ispossible to enhance the mechanical performance of synthetic hydrogels.Inspired by this fact, many attempts were taken along with recentinnovations in synthetic chemistry such as triblock copolymers (M. E.Seitz, D. Martina, T. Baumberger, V. R. Krishnan, C. Hui, K. R. Shull,Soft Matter, 2009, 5, 447-456), Nanocomposite hydrogels (K. Haraguchi,T. Takehisa, Adv. Mater., 2002, 14, 1120-1124), slide-ring gels (K. Ito,Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science, 2010, 14, 28-34),Tetra-Poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) gels (T. Sakai, T. Matsunaga, Y.Yamamoto, C. Ito, R. Yoshida, S. Suzuki, N. Sasaki, M. Shibayama, Ung-ilChung, Macromolecules, 2008, 41, 5379-5384), silica nanoparticles withPoly (dimethylacrylamide) (PDMA) (W-C. Lin, W. Fan, A. Marcellan, D.Hourdet, C.Creton, Macromolecules, 2010, 43, 2554-2563), etc. Amongthem, a double network hydrogel introduced by Gong et al (J. P. Gong, Y.Katsuyama, T. Kurokawa, Y. Osada, Adv. Mater., 2003, 15, 1155-1158) hasobtained much attention due to high mechanical strength and fracturetoughness. It is comprised of two independently crosslinked networks;Poly (2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonicacid) (PAMPS) and PAAm. Therigid, brittle PAMPS first network serves as an energy dissipationmechanism and the soft, ductile PAAm network assists in broadening thefracture zone to maximize dissipation. They have achieved high toughnessin the range of 100-1000 J/m². However, due to their mechanism ofprevious DN hydrogels, once the first network has been fractured, themechanical response is dominated by the much softer second network, andthe high stiffness and toughness is lost.

The hydrogel described herein overcomes this significant drawback ofearlier hydrogel. The improved hydrogels described herein differ fromprevious hydrogels in three significant ways: (1) toughness, e.g., atleast 10 times tougher and more durable compared to previous gels; (2)defect resistance, e.g., durable gel is not prone to development oftears; and (3) self-healing, e.g., time-depending restoration ofmechanical properties. With prior hydrogels, once a defect occurs,failure of the gel was imminent. The improved hydrogels of the inventionare resistance to defects, and even if a defect occurs, the gelmaintains its toughness and does not fail (FIGS. 1A-D).

An interpenetrating network (IPN) hydrogel, which has great mechanicalperformance without the need to sacrifice one network, was made bycombining covalently crosslinked and ionically crosslinked polymernetworks. PAAm and alginate were selected as the covalently crosslinkednetwork and ionically crosslinked network, respectively, and thesynthesis was carried out in a one step process. Under the optimizedcrosslinking densities and polymer ratio, the PAAm/alginate IPN hydrogelwhich has ˜90% water content has a greater enhancement of the mechanicalproperties, at least an order of magnitude increase in fracturetoughness (around 9000 J/m²) over the double network hydrogel introducedby Gong et al, with a high stretch value, i.e., around 21. Moreover,PAAm/alginate IPN hydrogel also shows self-healing properties; 54.6%energy density was recovered in a 2^(nd) loading after storing thesample at 80° C. for 1 day. This improved hydrogel opens up the use ofthese types of hydrogels in new or different applications (compared topresent hydrogel uses) and also improves the performance in currentapplications (e.g., uses described in U.S. patent application Ser. Nos.13/305,088, 12/992,617, 12/867,426, 13/264,243, 61/480,237, 61/479,774,61/493,398, 61/535,473, each of which is hereby incorporated byreference).

Described herein is the synthesis of PAAm/alginate IPN hydrogel and howthe mechanical properties of PAAM/alginate IPN hydrogel were changed bycontrolling the crosslinker densities and polymer ratios by tensile andfracture tests. The mechanism governing the extremely high toughness ofPAAm/alginate hydrogel is also described. The energy recovery of 2^(nd)loading was measured by repeated tensile test.

Tough Hydrogels

Hydrogels with enhanced mechanical properties have increasing demand inmany applications. However, the soft, weak and brittle behaviors of theconventional hydrogels have limited the applications where mechanicalproperties are important. PAAm (Polyacrylamide)-alginateInterpenetrating network (IPN) hydrogels herein described arecharacterized by extremely high toughness ˜9000 J/m2 with a high stretchvalue (˜21), although it contains 86 wt.-% water. Moreover,PAAm-Alginate gel shows self-healing properties. As described in detailbelow, around 74% energy density of the first loading was recovered inthe second loading after storing at 80° C. for one day from the firstunloading. The hydrogels are physiologically compatible and have littleor no toxicity after soaking the fabricated gels to eliminate unreactivemonomers.

Example 1: Manufacture of IPN Hydrogel Compositions

The following materials and methods were used to make and test theimproved hydrogel compositions.

Materials

Acrylamide (AAm; Sigma, A8887) and alginate (FMC Biopolymer, LF 20/40)were used as the base materials of the network.N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA; Sigma, M7279) was used as thecross-linking agent for AAm gel. Ammonium persulfate (AP; Sigma, A9164),N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED; Sigma, T7024) were used asthe photo initiator and accelerator for the ultraviolet (UV) gelationreactions, respectively. Calcium sulfate slurry (CaSO₄.2H₂O; Sigma,31221) was used as the ionic crosslinker for alginate gel. All materialswere used as received.

Gel Preparation

The interpenetrating network (IPN) gels were prepared by dissolvingalginate and AAm monomer powders in deionized water. The waterconcentration [water wt./(alginate+AAm+water wt.)]×100] was fixed as88.6 wt.-% throughout the entire experiments, and polymer ratios werevaried by mixing different amounts of alginate and AAm powders. MBAA0.06 wt.-% and AP 0.17 wt.-% with respect to the weight of AAm monomerwere added as a cross-linker for AAm and a photo initiator,respectively. After degassing in vacuum chamber, calcium sulfate slurry13.28 wt.-% with respect to the weight of alginate monomer and TEMED0.25 wt.-% with respect to the weight of AAm monomer were lastly addedas the ionic cross-linker for alginate and accelerator.

The solutions were poured into a glass mold which has 75.0×150.0×3.0 mm³size vacancy and covered with 3 mm thick transparent glass plate. Thegels were cured by the ultraviolet light cross-linker (UVC 500, Hoefer)for 1 hour with 8 W power and 254 nm wavelength. The gels were then leftin humid box for 1 day to stabilize reactions before performingmechanical tests. Hereafter, the IPN gels are referred to asP₁-x₁-y₁/P₂-x₂-y₂, where P_(i), x_(i), and y_(i) (i=1, 2) are theabbreviated polymer name (i.e. PAAm), weight concentration of monomer inwt.-% with respect to the weight of water [e.g. x₁=(PAAm wt./Waterwt.)×100], and the crosslinker concentration in wt.-% with respect tothe monomer of the ith network [e.g. y₁=(MBAA wt./PAAm wt.)×100],respectively.

Example 2: Characterization of Hydrogel Properties

Physical and chemical characteristics were evaluated as follows.

Mechanical Tests

Before the mechanical tests, the surfaces of the hydrogels were driedwith N₂ gas for 1 minute to remove water from the gel surfaces. Fourstiff polystyrene plates were glued with superglue to clamp the gel asshown in FIG. 3A. At the end, 75.0 (L)×5.0 (h₀)×3.0 (t) mm³ size testspecimens were prepared for the tests. All mechanical tests wereperformed at room temperature on a tensile machine (Instron model 3342)with 500 N capacity load cell and nominal stress and stretch wererecorded. The stretch rate was kept constant as λ°=2 min⁻¹.

Tensile Test (FIG. 1A, FIG. 2)

PAAm-14.05-0.06/Alginate-1.76-13.28 IPN gel was subjected to tensiletest. The pictures for reference and current states of tensile test areshown in FIG. 1A to demonstrate the high stretchability of PAAm/AlginateIPN gel. As shown in FIG. 1A, PAAm/Alginate IPN gel sustained hugetensile stretch λ=21, although it contains 86 wt.-% water. This hugetensile rupture stretch is remarkable, because high tensile rupturestretch results in enhanced performances and improved safety inapplications. Moreover, because hydrogels which are well known for thehigh toughness, such as polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate (PHEMA), PolyvinylAlcohol (PVA), and DN hydrogel have tensile rupture stretches aroundλ=2.6, λ=6, and λ=7.4, respectively (M. Kita, Y. Ogura, Y. Honda, S. H.Hyon, W. Cha, and Y. Ikada, Graefe's Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol., 1990,228, 533-537; Q. M. Yu, Y. Tanaka, H. Furukawa, T. Kurokawa, and J. P.Gong, Macromolecules, 2009, 42, 3852-3855), PAAm/Alginate IPN gels areparticularly useful when there are mechanical failure issues.

The dramatic change of mechanical properties for PAAm/Alginate IPN gelis shown in FIG. 2 by comparing IPN hydrogel with PAAm single-network(SN) and Alginate SN gels. To make an effective comparison, crosslinkingdensities and polymer concentrations of individual networks for SN andIPN were fixed, in particular, PAAm-14.05-0.06 single-network (SN) gel,Alginate-1.76-13.28 SN gel, and PAAm-14.05-0.06/Alginate-1.76-13.28 IPNgel were used. The engineering stress, σ, under tensile test was plottedas a function of stretch, λ. Here, σ is defined as the measured loaddivided by the undeformed cross-sectional area, and λ is defined as themeasured length divided by the undeformed gauge length. As shown in FIG.2, IPN gel shows highly improved mechanical properties in terms of bothultimate stress and rupture stretch. PAAm and Alginate SN gels wereruptured at 11.44 and 3.65 kPa stress values, respectively, whilePAAm/Alginate IPN gel has sustained a stress of 156.23 kPa, which ismore than 13 times that was sustained by the SN gels. Also, the rupturestretch of the IPN gel is λ≈23, which is much higher than that of boththe PAAm SN gel (λ≈6) and the Alginate SN gel (λ≈1.2).

Two distinguishing characteristics were revealed in the characterizationprocess. First, in the small strain region, the elastic modulus ofPAAm/Alginate IPN gel is E=28.57 kPa, which is closer to the sum of theelastic moduli of the PAAm SN gel (E=8.22 kPa) and the Alginate SN gel(E=16.95 kPa). It means the rule of mixture can be used to calculate theelastic modulus of IPN gel. Second, Alginate SN gel has extremely smallrupture stretch (λ≈1.2) and PAAm SN gel has relatively small rupturestretch (λ≈6) compared to the IPN gel. However, when the IPN gel wassynthesized by mixing two networks, IPN gel showed huge rupture stretchλ≈23 rather than an intermediate value between the rupture stretches ofSNs. This change of rupture stretch cannot be explained with generalidea such as rule of mixture and is clarified below.

Fracture Test (FIG. 1B, FIG. 3A,B)

FIG. 1B demonstrates how flaw-insensitive thePAAm-14.05-0.06/Alginate-1.76-13.28 IPN gel is. The initial flaw wasintroduced by a razor blade to a value of 2c₀=2 cm and the sample wasstretched perpendicular to the pre-crack direction. As shown in FIG. 1B,even until high stretch λ˜17, the crack was not propagated.

To investigate the fracture toughness of the hydrogel, Rivlin's method(Rivlin et al., 1953, J. Polym. Sci. 10, 291-318; M. Kita, Y. Ogura, Y.Honda, S. -H. Hyon, W. Cha, and Y. Ikada, Graefe's Arch. Clin. Exp.Ophthalmol., 1990, 228, 533-537; Q. M. Yu, Y. Tanaka, H. Furukawa, T.Kurokawa, and J. P. Gong, Macromolecules, 2009, 42, 3852-3855) was usedwith the fracture test specimens shown in FIG. 3A. An initial edge crack(c₀) was introduced by razor blade in lengths of c₀/L≈0.5 to thefracture test specimens. Tensile tests and fracture tests were carriedout until the specimen reached ultimate failure. Movies of crackpropagation of the fracture tests were recorded at a typical rate of 30frames/sec to find the onset crack propagation stretch (λ_(c)).

When the fracture test pieces were deformed in a direction parallel tothe dimension h₀, the region which is far from the crack front hasuniform strain energy density(Rivlin et al., 1953, J. Polym. Sci. 10,291-318). When the crack propagation was occurred, the increase in thecrack length of amount (dc) does not alter the state of strain near thecrack tip but causes the cracked region to grow at the expense of theuniform strain energy density region. Thus, if the region which is farfrom the crack front has uniform strain energy density (W), an increasein crack length (dc) will release the energy (dw) of W·h₀·t·dc. Where h₀is the length of the test piece between the clamps and t is thethickness, and both these quantities have been measured in theundeformed state. So,−(∂w/∂c)_(h) =W·h ₀ ·t

The suffix h indicates that the differentiation is carried out at aconstant displacement. The strain energy density (W) is a function ofapplied stretch (λ). If the onset critical stretch for crack propagation(λ_(c)) is known, the fracture toughness for crack initiation (Γ₀) canbe given by, Γ₀=W(λ_(c))·h₀

In the measurement for the toughness in FIG. 3B, two specimens, one fortensile test and the other for fracture test, were prepared with samedimensions. Fracture test was performed with notched specimen to obtainthe onset critical stretch for crack propagation (λ_(c)). Initial notchsizes (c₀) have been varied, but comparable critical stretches wereobtained when the initial notch sizes are in the range of 0.13≤c₀/L≤0.8.From the tensile test which was performed with un-notched specimen, thestrain energy density W(λ_(c)) was calculated by integrating the areaunder the stress-stretch curves of tensile test, corresponding to theonset crack propagating stretch λ_(c).

The toughness measuring method was verified with two different methods,tensile test with various crack lengths and double peeling test (Rivlinet al., 1953, J. Polym. Sci. 10, 291-318). Although the crackpropagation was occurred at a huge stretch, the toughness of theexperiment matched very well with the other methods.

The Effects of Crosslinking Densities and Polymer Ratio (FIG. 3C, D)

One very effective way to control the toughness of the PAAm/alginate IPNgel is by controlling the crosslinking density of each network. Sincetwo different crosslinkers were used for the PAAm/alginate IPN gel,MBAAm as a covalent crosslinker for PAAm network and CaSO₄ as a ioniccrosslinker for alginate network, the crosslinking densities wereoptimized one by one, by fixing one crosslinking density. The effects ofcrosslinker densities were studied with a given PAAm ratio [AAmwt./(AAm+alginate wt.)]×100=91 wt.-% and water concentration 86 wt.-%.To study the MBAAm effect, the crosslinking density of the alginatenetwork was fixed at 26.57 wt.-%, and the crosslinking density of thePAAm network was varied from 0.031 to 0.124 wt.-%. The elastic moduli ofPAAm/alginate IPN gels were gradually increased by adding morecrosslinker for PAAm network. However, even with a highly crosslinkedPAAm, the total stiffness of IPN gel was not increased a lot, becausePAAm network is much more compliant than alginate network. The highestfracture toughness was obtained when the crosslinking density of thePAAm network was 0.062 wt.-%. The reason why IPN gel got optimumcrosslinker density for PAAm network in terms of the toughness wasunderstood as follows. When the crosslinker density becomes too high,the distance between two crosslinked points for PAAm network will beshortened. As Lake and Thomas pointed out from their work (Lake et al.,1967, Proc. R. Soc. A 300, 108-119), since the rupture of chain willalso relax the stored energy between crosslinked points, if the chainhas shorter distance between crosslinked points, the energy required torupture a chain will become smaller, although only one of these monomerunits will in fact be ruptured. For another extreme case, if thecrosslinker density becomes too low, since forces are transmittedprimarily via the crosslinks, PAAm network can't spread applied force tolarge area. Therefore, very low crosslinker density will cause smallprocess zone size and small toughness.

To study the CaSO₄ effect, the crosslinking density of the PAAm networkwas fixed at 0.06 wt.-%, and the crosslinking density of the alginatenetwork was varied from 3.32 to 53.15 wt.-%. The elastic moduli ofPAAm/alginate IPN gels were proportionally increased by increasing theamount of the crosslinking density of alginate network. However, thecritical stretch for crack propagation was decreased by increasing theamount of the crosslinking density of alginate network. So, the highestfracture toughness was obtained when the crosslinking density of thealginate network was 13.28 wt.-%. The reason why IPN gel got optimumcrosslinker density for alginate network in terms of the toughness wasunderstood like follows. When the crosslinker density becomes higher,the yield stress for alginate network will also gradually be larger.After some point, the total dissipated energy by plastic deformation ofalginate chain will be decreased by increased yield stress, andtoughness will also be decreased. On the other hand, when the IPN gelhas very low Ca²⁺ concentration, the total amount of plastic deformationwill be very small, and it will decrease the toughness.

The other way to control the fracture toughness is by controlling thepolymer ratio between PAAm network and alginate network. Crosslinkingdensities of the alginate and PAAm networks were fixed at 13.28 wt.-%and 0.06 wt.-%, respectively. The PAAm ratio, [AAm wt./(AAm+alginatewt.)]×100, was varied from 66.67 to 94.12 wt.-% and the correspondingstress-stretch curves of tensile tests are posted in FIG. 3C. When theamount of AAm was increased, the elastic modulus of PAAm/alginate IPNgel was reduced. However, the elongation of PAAm/alginate IPN gel wasincreased until the PAAm ratio was 88.89 wt.-%, and was decreased afterthat point. In the fracture test, the critical stretch for rupture hasthe same trend with the elongation. When the PAAm ratio was varied from66.67 to 94.12 wt.-%, the highest mean critical stretch λ_(c)=15.71 wasobtained at the PAAm ratio of 88.89 wt.-%. The fracture toughness wascalculated by combining the tensile tests with the fracture tests, andthe results are posted in FIG. 3D. The highest fracture toughness wasobtained when the PAAm ratio was 85.71 wt.-%, and the correspondingnumber is 8696 J/m².

This huge fracture toughness is remarkable; because PAAm and alginateSNs have a fracture toughness in the range of 10 to 10² J/m² (Y. Tanaka,K. Fukao, and Y. Miyamoto, Eur. J. Phys., 2000, E 3, 395-401).Furthermore, hydrogels which are well known for the high toughness, suchas PHEMA-vinyl pyrrolidone-phenethyl methacrylate copolymers have afracture toughness around Γ=347 J/m² (A. P. Jackson, Biomaterials, 1990,11, 403-407). Even DN proposed by Gong et al, the toughest hydrogel sofar, has the fracture toughness in the range of 10² to 10³ J/m² (Q. M.Yu, Y. Tanaka, H. Furukawa, T. Kurokawa, and J. P. Gong, Macromolecules,2009, 42, 3852-3855).

Mechanism Governing the High Toughness (FIG. 4A)

Assuming PAAm network has long enough chain to be stretched to thecritical stretch of IPN gel, which means, if there are no flaws in thesample, PAAm network itself can be stretched up to the critical stretchof IPN gel λ≈λ_(c) ^(IPN). However, because PAAm network behaves likeelastic material, the stress concentration near the initial flaws willbe significant and also will bring small plastic zone size. Therefore,when the PAAm SN gel was stretched around λ≈λ_(c) ^(PAAm), although thearea where is far from crack tip can be stretched more, because thecrack tip area already reached to the maximum elongation, the crackpropagation will be occurred. On the contrary, when the ionicallycrosslinked alginate networks were added to the PAAm back bone networks,alginate network would help to dissipate the energy with plasticdeformation without breaking alginate chain itself; when the alginatenetwork deforms, calcium ions are dissociated from the crosslinkedpoints and will re-associate in another alginate chain. As a result,plastic behavior of ionically crosslinked alginate assist to broaden theplastic zone size and make the PAAm/alginate IPN gel tough. When thePAAm/alginate IPN gel was stretched around λ≈λ_(c) ^(PAAm), even thenetwork which is in the crack tip area did not reach to the maximumelongation of PAAm back bone chain because the stress concentration wasmuch smaller than the PAAm SN gel. So the elongation of PAAm/alginatehydrogel is improved compared to the elongation of PAAm SN gel.

Calcium Ion Effect (FIG. 4B)

The hydrogen bond between —OH groups of alginate and —NH₂ groups of PAAmmolecules was suggested by analyzing Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)spectra of alginate, PAAm, PAAm/alginate IPN (D. Solpan, M. Torun, O.Guven, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2008, 108, 3787-3795). If theinteraction between two networks effect on the mechanical properties ofIPN gel, the interaction between two networks should be included in themechanism of high toughness of PAAm/alginate IPN gel.

Stress-strain curves for PAAm/Alginate IPN gels with calcium ions andwithout calcium ions under uniaxial tension were plotted withstress-strain curve of PAAm SN gel in FIG. 4B. Because calcium ions donot affect the interaction between two networks, PAAm/alginate IPN gelswithout calcium ions may have hydrogen bonds between two networks.However, PAAm/Alginate IPN gels without calcium ions show a very similarstiffness and elongation with PAAm SN gel, even though IPN gel containsalginate chains in it. This means the interaction between two networksdoesn't have a large effect on mechanical properties of IPN gel.

The stiffness of PAAm/Alginate IPN gel was increased by adding morecalcium ions, the crosslinker for alginate network, due to the increasein total crosslinking density. Furthermore, the stretchability of theIPN gel was enhanced remarkably at the same time. The elongations weredoubled in the case of PAAm-13.55-0.06/Alginate-2.26-0 IPN gel when thecalcium sulfate was added at the weight ratio of CaSO₄/Alginate=13.28%.

Unloading Test (FIG. 4C)

Loading-unloading tensile tests were performed in displacement controlfor SNs PAAm and alginate, and PAAm/alginate IPN gel without pre-crack.Specimens were loaded to a peak stretch λ=1.2 and returned to theinitial stretch with constant stretch rate λ°=3.3×10⁻² sec⁻¹. The peakstretch was relatively small; because alginate has a small rupturestretch λ<1.25. In FIG. 4C, stress-stretch curves for loading-unloadingtests were plotted with PAAm and alginate single networks andPAAm/alginate IPN. For a covalently crosslinked PAAm gel, the mechanicalresponse is dominated entirely by an elastic, recoverable response, withlittle hysteresis. In contrast, ionically crosslinked alginate geldemonstrates considerable hysteresis, indicating significant dissipationof applied strain energy. This energy dissipation of ionicallycrosslinked alginate gel was understood with breaking and reformingionic crosslinks idea (E. Pines and W. Prins, Macromolecules, 1973, 6,888-895). PAAm/alginate IPN gel also has ionic crosslinks and showssimilar hysteresis in FIG. 4C. This energy dissipation mechanism servesto increase the fracture toughness of PAAm/alginate IPN gel.

Self-Healing (FIG. 5)

Ionic crosslinking in alginate gels demonstrate reversible associationsthat permits gel recovery after shear deformation, and ionicallycrosslinked triblock copolymer hydrogel shows 61% energy recovery insecond loading after waiting 12 hours after unloading. So, the distinctadvantage of PAAm/alginate IPN gel over covalently crosslinked DN gelsis its self-healing ability since double network gels which have nofatigue resistance has the second loading in the same location followedby the unloading behavior of the previous test.

The repeated tensile tests are carried out to reveal the self-healingproperty of PAAm/Algingate IPN gel. IPN gels are firstly loaded to λ=7,and unloaded to the initial length with a stretch rate λ°=2/min. Thesamples are put into the polyethylene bag and sealed with mineral oilafter unloading to prevent the evaporation of the water, and stored inisothermal hot bathes with the temperatures of 20° C., 60° C. and 80° C.The second loadings are followed after keeping the samples in the hotbath for 10 secs, 10 mins, 1 hour, 4 hours and 1 day. As shown in FIG.5, PAAm/Alginate IPN gel shows big hysteresis in first cycle which iscaused by the breaking of ionic bond of alginate network. Thus, in thesecond loading, IPN gels behave more compliant than 1^(st) loading whenthe stretch was below the maximum stretch of the 1^(st) cycle. However,because ionic bond can be healed, PAAm/Alginate IPN gel shows therecovery of the stiffness in the second loading, and the stiffness ofthe second loading is gradually increased by increasing healing time andby storing the unloaded sample at higher temperature. FIG. 5D plots thenormalized energy density of 2^(nd) loading as a function ofself-healing time with various healing temperature 20° C., 60° C. and80° C., and the energy density of 1^(st) unloading is plotted as adashed line also. The energy densities are calculated by integrating theunder area of the stress-stretch curves up to maximum stretch of 1^(st)stretching. As shown in FIG. 5D, the energy density also increased byincreasing the healing time and temperature, and PAAm/Alginate IPN gelshows 74.1% energy density of the 1^(st) loading during the 2^(nd)loading after storing IPN gel in 80° C. for 1 day. Because 1^(st)unloading can only take 19.5% energy density of the 1^(st) loading,54.6% energy density is recovered by self healing of IPN gel. There is atime element to self-healing. The cycling requires a healing period torestore mechanical properties.

MBAAm Effect

As shown in FIG. 6, one very effective way to control the toughness ofthe PAAm/alginate IPN gel is by controlling the crosslinking density ofeach network. Since two different crosslinkers were used for thePAAm/alginate IPN gel, MBAAm as a covalent crosslinker for PAAm networkand CaSO₄ as a ionic crosslinker for alginate network, the crosslinkingdensities were optimized one by one, by fixing one crosslinking density.The effects of crosslinker densities were studied with a given PAAmratio [AAm wt./(AAm+alginate wt.)]×100=91 wt.-% and water concentration86 wt.-%. To study the MBAAm effect, the crosslinking density of thealginate network was fixed at 26.57 wt.-%, and the crosslinking densityof the PAAm network was varied from 0.031 to 0.124 wt.-%. The elasticmoduli of PAAm/alginate IPN gels were gradually increased by adding morecrosslinker for PAAm network. However, even with a highly crosslinkedPAAm, the total stiffness of IPN gel was not increased a lot, becausePAAm network is much more compliant than alginate network. The highestfracture toughness was obtained when the crosslinking density of thePAAm network was 0.062 wt.-%. The reason that IPN gel got optimumcrosslinker density for PAAm network in terms of the toughness wasunderstood as follows. When the crosslinker density becomes too high,the distance between two crosslinked points for PAAm network will beshortened. Since the rupture of the chain will also relax the storedenergy between crosslinked points, if the chain has a shorter distancebetween crosslinked points, the energy required to rupture a chain willbecome smaller, although only one of these monomer units will in fact beruptured. For another extreme case, if the crosslinker density becomestoo low, since forces are transmitted primarily via the crosslinks, PAAmnetwork cannot spread applied force to large area. Therefore, very lowcrosslinker density will cause small process zone size and smalltoughness.

CaSO₄ Effect

As shown in FIG. 7, to study the CaSO₄ effect, the crosslinking densityof the PAAm network was fixed at 0.06 wt.-%, and the crosslinkingdensity of the alginate network was varied from 3.32 to 53.15 wt.-%. Theelastic moduli of PAAm/alginate IPN gels were proportionally increasedby increasing the amount of the crosslinking density of alginatenetwork. However, the critical stretch for crack propagation wasdecreased by increasing the amount of the crosslinking density ofalginate network. So, the highest fracture toughness was obtained whenthe crosslinking density of the alginate network was 13.28 wt.-%. Thereason that IPN gel got optimum crosslinker density for alginate networkin terms of the toughness was understood as follows. When thecrosslinker density becomes higher, the yield stress for alginatenetwork gradually becomes larger. After some point, the total dissipatedenergy by plastic deformation of alginate chain is decreased byincreased yield stress, and toughness is also decreased. On the otherhand, when the IPN gel has a very low Ca²⁺ concentration, the totalamount of plastic deformation is very small, and it decreases thetoughness.

Polymer Ratio

As shown in FIG. 8, the other way to control the fracture toughness isby controlling the polymer ratio between PAAm network and alginatenetwork. Crosslinking densities of the alginate and PAAm networks werefixed at 13.28 wt.-% and 0.06 wt.-%, respectively. The PAAm ratio, [AAmwt./(AAm+alginate wt.)]×100, was varied from 66.67 to 94.12 wt.-% andthe corresponding stress-stretch curves of tensile tests are posted inFIG. 3C. When the amount of AAm was increased, the elastic modulus ofPAAm/alginate IPN gel was reduced. However, the elongation ofPAAm/alginate IPN gel was increased until the PAAm ratio was 88.89wt.-%, and was decreased after that point. In the fracture test, thecritical stretch for rupture has the same trend with the elongation.When the PAAm ratio was varied from 66.67 to 94.12 wt.-%, the highestmean critical stretch λ_(c)=15.71 was obtained at the PAAm ratio of88.89 wt.-%. The fracture toughness was calculated by combining thetensile tests with the fracture tests, and the results are posted inFIG. 3D. The highest fracture toughness was obtained when the PAAm ratiowas 85.71 wt.-%, and the corresponding number is 8696 J/m².

This huge fracture toughness is remarkable, because PAAm and alginatesingle networks (SNs) have a fracture toughness in the range of 10 to10² J/m². Furthermore, hydrogels which are well known for the hightoughness, such as PHEMA-vinyl pyrrolidone-phenethyl methacrylatecopolymers have a fracture toughness around Γ=347 J/m² (A. P. Jackson,Biomaterials, 1990, 11, 403-407). Even DN proposed by Gong et al, thetoughest hydrogel so far, has the fracture toughness in the range of 10²to 10³ J/m² (Q. M. Yu, Y. Tanaka, H. Furukawa, T. Kurokawa, and J. P.Gong, Macromolecules, 2009, 42, 3852-3855).

Temperature Effect

Thermal treatment affects the properties of the gels by promotingcovalent coupling between the two networks (e.g., covalently crosslinkedacrylamide network and ionically crosslinked alginate network).Acrylamide-alginate water solutions were prepared as described above.The composition of the gels was as follows: 2 wt % alginate,AAM/alginate=6, MBAA/AAM=30.06%, Ca/alginate=0.1328. For thermaltreatment before free radical polymerization, the mixture of alginateand acrylamide was kept at various temperatures for 1 hour.Subsequently, gelation was performed under UV350W for 500 s

The stress-stretch curves for hybrid gels of LF2040 after thermaltreatment is shown in FIG. 38. As shown in FIGS. 38A and 38B, theproperties of the gel greatly depend on the temperature during thermaltreatment. Performance (modulus, toughness, and stretchability) improvesfrom 20° C. to 36° C., but deteriorates at higher temperatures.

The alginate chains degrade to shorter chains and unsaturated unitsduring thermal treatment: moderate degradation (<36° C.) createsunsaturated units for better bonds between two networks while notcutting the alginate chains too much. By contrast, severe degradation(>36° C.) results in much shorter alginate chains, deteriorating thegel. Thus, the temperature and duration of thermal treatment can bevaried to achieve different mechanical properties and performance of thegel as desired.

FTIR

Spectroscopic analysis was carried out as follows.

Same thickness (≈100 μm) sheets of PAAm-8-0.06 SN gel (water content: 88wt.-%), Alginate-1-13.28 SN gel (water content: 97 wt.-%), andPAAm-8-0.06/Alginate-1-13.28 copolymer gel (water content: 86 wt.-%)were prepared for Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra measurement.Before the measurement, each sample was frozen at −20° C. and dried invacuum chamber for 2 days to eliminate water molecules from the sample.FTIR spectra were recorded between 4000 and 400 cm⁻¹ on a Nicolet 360FTIR E.S.P. spectrometer. The PAAm/Alginate copolymer hydrogels werecharacterized by comparing the FTIR spectra with the spectra of parentmaterials, PAAm and alginate.

FIG. 9 shows the FTIR spectra of Alginate, PAAm, and PAAm/Alginatecopolymer in the wavelength range of 4000-400 cm⁻¹. Alginate shows abroad peak near 3400 cm⁻¹ for O—H stretching, one sharp peak at 1620cm⁻¹ for asymmetric COO— stretching, two peaks at 1420 and 1320 cm⁻¹ forC—H deformation with secondary alcohols, and three peaks at 1120, 1090,and 1030 cm⁻¹ for asymmetric C—O—C stretching, C—O stretching in CH—OHstructure, and symmetric C—O stretching in C—O—C structure,respectively. The IR spectrum of PAAm exhibiting bands at 3360 cm⁻¹ and3200 cm⁻¹ were assigned to a stretching vibration of N—H, and at 1670cm⁻¹ for C═O stretching. The bands at 1620 cm⁻¹ (N—H deformation forprimary amine), 1450 cm⁻¹ (CH₂ in-plane scissoring), 1420 cm⁻¹ (C—Nstretching for primary amide), 1350 cm⁻¹ (C—H deformation), and 1120cm⁻¹ (NH₂ in-plane rocking) were also detected. The spectra of thePAAm/Alginate copolymer are characterized by comparing the presence ofthe absorption bands with the pure components. In the spectra ofPAAm/Alginate copolymer, new peak at 1280 cm⁻¹ for C—N stretching ofsecondary amide was created. Furthermore, the intensity of theabsorption bands (1620, 1420 cm⁻¹) which are related with primary amide,and the intensity of NH₂ in-plane rocking peak (1120 cm⁻¹) aredecreased. Moreover, the intensities of O—H stretching peak (3400 cm⁻¹),C—O stretching in CH—OH structure (1090 cm⁻¹), and symmetric C—Ostretching in C—O—C structure (1030 cm⁻¹) were decreased. The new bondsform between —NH₂ groups of PAAm and —OH groups of alginate.

Cycling of Mechanical Properties: Fracture of 2^(nd) Cycle

The unique phenomenon of self-healing is depicted in FIG. 10C, D. Therepeated tensile tests and fracture tests for 2^(nd) loading werecarried out with samples which were experienced first loading andunloading without initial crack up to various maximum stretches of firstcycle (λ_(max)). To reveal the recovery property of IPN hydrogel, twosets of samples were prepared. One set was immediately loaded rightafter 1^(st) unloading and the other was subjected to the 2^(nd) loadingafter storing the unloaded sample in a humid box at room temperature for1 day. An initial edge crack (c₀) for fracture test was introduced afterunloading of 1^(st) cycle by razor blade in lengths of c₀/L≈0.5.

Ionic crosslinking in alginate gels has previously demonstratedreversible associations that permits gel recovery after sheardeformation. So, the distinct advantage of PAAm/alginate IPN gel overcovalently crosslinked double network gels could be its potentialself-healing ability since double network gels which have no fatigueresistance has the second loading in the same location followed by theunloading behavior of the previous test.

Stress-stretch curves for repeated tensile test of PAAm/alginate IPN gelwere plotted in FIG. 10A. 2^(nd) loadings were carried out with sampleswhich were experienced first loading and unloading without initialcrack, up to the maximum stretches of first cycle (λ_(max)). To studythe recovery of IPN hydrogel, two sets of samples were prepared. One setwas immediately loaded right after 1^(st) unloading and the other wassubjected to the 2^(nd) loading after storing the unloaded sample in ahumid box at room temperature for 1 day.

The first cycle showed big hysteresis which is caused by plasticdeformation of ionic crosslinking of alginate gel. In both cases, IPNgels behave more compliant than 1^(st) loading in the second loadingwhen the stretch was below the maximum stretch of the 1^(st) cycle.However, IPN gel recovers its stiffness after the maximum stretch of the1^(st) cycle. The stress-strain curves of 2^(nd) loading seem to beinfluenced by the 1^(st) cycle only under the maximum stretch region ofthe first cycle. Moreover, when the stretch was below the maximumstretch of the 1^(st) cycle, the sample which was loaded secondly after1 day shows significant recovery on stiffness compared with immediate2^(nd) loaded sample. Below the maximum stretch of the 1^(st) cycleregion, the sample which was loaded after 1 day can take 51.2% energy of1^(st) loading, rather than 31.6% energy which was taken by theimmediately 2^(nd) loaded sample. This energy ratio was not changed muchby varying the maximum stretch of the 1^(st) cycle.

For the fracture test, an initial edge crack (c₀) was introduced afterunloading of 1^(st) cycle by a razor blade in lengths of c₀/L≈0.5. Theonset crack propagating stretches of 2^(nd) loading had almost samerange with that of 1^(st) loading, and 2^(nd) loading after 1 day andimmediate 2^(nd) loading samples also showed similar critical stretches.The toughness of the second loading was plotted as a function of themaximum stretches of first cycle in FIG. 10B. The toughness ratio of2^(nd) loading to 1^(st) loading was decreased as increasing the maximumstretch of 1^(st) cycle, because IPN gel becomes softer below themaximum stretch of 1^(st) cycle. One remarkable point is, in theimmediate 2^(nd) loading, PAAm/alginate IPN gel still has 55.2%toughness which is 4803 J/m² in the second loading even after λ_(max)=10stretch. The sample which was loaded secondly after 1 day showed 13.1%additional toughness recovery, compared to immediately loaded samplewhen the maximum stretch of 1^(st) cycle was 10. This toughness ratiobecame larger as the applied maximum stretch of 1^(st) cycle becamelarger.

IPN Hydrogel Networks with Toughness, Defect Resistance, and CyclingProperties

When the ionically crosslinked alginate networks were added to the PAAmback bone networks, alginate network helps to dissipate the energy withplastic deformation without breaking alginate chain itself. The plasticbehavior of ionically crosslinked alginate assist to broaden the plasticzone size and make the PAAm/alginate IPN gel tough. PAAm/alginate IPNhydrogel which has ˜90% water content showed a greater enhancement ofthe mechanical properties, high stretch (around 21) and an order ofmagnitude increase in fracture toughness (around 9000 J/m²) over thepreviously described double network hydrogel. Moreover, PAAm/alginateIPN hydrogel also shows high fatigue resistance; 54.6% energy wasrecovered in 2^(nd) loading after storing sample at 80° C. for 1 day.

The Effect of Damage on Reloading

The hybrid gel suffers internal damage after the first loading. To studythe effect of the damage, a sample of the hybrid gel was loaded up to acertain stretch λ_(max), unloaded the gel to zero force, and followedwith a second loading. The fracture energy measured on the secondloading was reduced from that measured on the first loading (FIG. 11).The amount of reduction increased with the maximum stretch of the firstloading. The gel regained some fracture energy if the second loading wasapplied 1 day later.

Recovery after the First Loading: The Effect of Storage Time andTemperature

The recovery after the first loading takes time, and can be made fasterby storing the gel in a hot bath. A sample of the hybrid gel was firstloaded in tension to a stretch of 7, and was unloaded to zero force. Thesample was then sealed in a polyethylene bag and submerged in mineraloil to prevent water from evaporation, and stored in a bath of a fixedtemperature for a certain period of time. Afterwards, the sample wastaken out of storage and its stress-stretch curve was measured again atroom temperature. FIGS. 12A-B show the stress-stretch curve on the firstloading and unloading, as well as the stress-stretch curves on thesecond loading after the sample was stored at certain temperatures forcertain periods of time. In the second loading, the gel was weaker thanthe first loading. The extent of recovery increased with the temperatureand time of storage.

Effect of the Ionic Crosslink Density of Alginate

To study the effect of the ionic crosslinks between alginate chains,hybrid gels were prepared with various concentrations of CaSO₄ (FIGS.13A-D). For the unnotched samples, the stress needed to deform the gelincreased with the concentration of CaSO₄. The small-strain elasticmodulus increased with the concentration of CaSO₄. For the notchedsamples, however, the critical stretch for the notch to turn into arunning crack decreased as the concentration of CaSO₄ increased. Thehighest fracture energy was obtained for an intermediate concentrationof CaSO₄. These trends are understood as follows. In the absence ofCa⁺⁺, alginate chains are not crosslinked, and bear no load, so that thehybrid gel exhibits a stress-stretch curve indistinguishable from thatof the polyacrylamide gel, with large stretchability but low fractureenergy. At a high concentration of Ca⁺⁺, alginate chains are denselycrosslinked. Only a small zone around the root of the notch is stressedenough to break the alginate chains, so the fracture energy is low.

Effect of the Covalent Crosslink Density of Polyacrylamide

To study the effect of the covalent crosslinks of polyacrylamide, hybridgels were prepared with various concentrations of the crosslinker MBAA.Properties of these gels are shown in FIGS. 14A-D. As the concentrationof MBAA increased, the crosslink density of the polyacrylamide networkincreased. However, the stiffness of the hybrid gel increased onlyslightly. The concentration of MBAA did greatly affect the criticalstretches of the notched samples. The highest fracture energy wasobtained for an intermediate concentration of MBAA. This trend isunderstood as follows. When the covalent crosslink density is too high,each individual polyacrylamide chain between two crosslinks is short.When the chain breaks, the energy stored in the entire chain isdissipated. Consequently, shorter chains will lead to low fractureenergy. In the other extreme, when the covalent crosslink density is toolow, the polyacrylamide network becomes too compliant, incapable tostabilize the deformation of the gel. Consequently, deformation in anotched gel is localized: only a small part of the alginate network willunzip and dissipate energy.

The Effect of the Crosslinker Density on Alginate Hydrogels

Mechanical properties were measured for alginate hydrogels of variousCaSO4 concentrations (FIGS. 15A-D). For the unnotched samples, thestress needed to deform the gel increased with the concentration ofCaSO₄. For the notched samples, however, the critical stretch for thenotch to turn into a running crack decreased as the concentration ofCaSO₄ increased. The highest fracture energy was obtained for anintermediate concentration of CaSO₄.

The Effect of Crosslinker Density on Polyacrylamide Hydrogels

Mechanical properties were measured for the polyacrylamide hydrogels ofvarious MBAA concentrations (FIGS. 16A-D). As the concentration of MBAAincreased, the stiffness of the hybrid gel increased. However, thecritical stretch of the notched samples decreased dramatically, thehighest fracture energy was obtained for the minimum concentration ofMBAA. Polyacrylamide single network gels with smaller than 0.015 wt. %MBAA concentration were only a viscous liquid after crosslinking.

Viscoelastic Responses Determined by Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)

The viscoelastic responses of alginate, polyacrylamide, andalginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels were determined by using DMA Q800(TA Instruments). Compression frequency-sweep tests at 0.1% strain werecarried out over the frequency range 0.01-30 Hz. Alginate gels with 97%,polyacrylamide gels with 86.4 wt. %, and alginate-polyacrylamide hybridgels with 86.4 wt. % water concentration were used for this test. Thepolymer ratio of alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gel is 1:6 of alginateto acrylamide. The covalent crosslinker, MBAA, was fixed at 0.0006 theweight of acrylamide for polyacrylamide gel and hybrid gel. The ioniccrosslinker, CaSO₄, was fixed at 0.1328 the weight of alginate foralginate gel and hybrid gel.

The storage modulus E′ and the loss modulus E″ for alginate,polyacrylamide, and hybrid gels were determined as the frequency changes(FIGS. 7A-C). The ratio of E″/E′ indicates the viscosity of thematerial. As expected, due to the unzipping behavior of the alginatenetwork, alginate and hybrid gels show more viscous behavior than thepolyacrylamide gels. Furthermore, alginate gels andalginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels clearly show the increase of E″ athigh frequency. The high frequency rise in E″ reflects fast relaxationprocesses and is typical viscous behavior of gels formed by temporary(breakable) junction zones.

Homogeneity of Hybrid Gels

The homogeneity of alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels was investigatedin two ways. First, the homogeneity of alginate networks in hybrid gelswere tested using fluorescence images of hybrid gels which werefabricated from fluorescent alginate. Second, since the amount ofcalcium ion was strongly related to the elastic modulus of hybrid gels,the homogeneity of the calcium ions was explored by performing elasticmodulus mapping of the surface of the hybrid gel.Alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels with 1:6 polymer ratio, 0.0006 MBAAconcentration, 0.1328 CaSO₄ concentration, and 86.4 wt. % waterconcentration were used for these tests. Fluorescent alginate wasprepared by coupling aminofluorescein (Sigma) to alginate polymers.Fluorescence images were taken using a 1.40 NA 63X PlanApo oil immersionobjective on a laser scanning confocal microscope (Zeiss LSM710). Asdemonstrated by a representative image (FIG. 18A), the fluorescentalginate (fluoresces green; appears grey in the figure) is fullyinterpenetrating and uniformly distributed within the hybrid gel. Theinterpenetrating networks hydrogel was found to be homogeneous throughwhole sample from micron size to millimeter size. Homogeneity refers tothe uniform distribution of polymer chains and crosslinkers.Alternatively, the gels are not homogeneous. In the latter case,mechanical performance is altered or tuned to desired characteristics bymanufacturing the gel with a gradient in the concentration of polymerand/or crosslinker density. The extent or density of crosslinking isvaried as desired to achieve different performance capabilities.

The elastic modulus mapping was performed using atomic force microscope(Asylum-1 MFP-3D AFM System) with silicon nitride cantilever (Bruker AFMprobes) with pyramid tipped probes. The stiffness of cantilevers iscalibrated from thermal fluctuations (^(˜)35 pN/nm). To reduce theeffect of the surface tension of the hydrogel, force measurements wereperformed in water with a 1000 nm/s sample surface movement. A 500imX500 im surface area of the hybrid gel is scanned and 6×6 points areexamined with a 100 im distance between each point. The elastic moduliwere calculated from the relationship between indentation depth 6 andpunch load F using the Hertzian model for a pyramid punch. The resultingelastic moduli of hybrid gels and their distribution are plotted inFIGS. 18C and D, respectively. An average 10.0 kPa elastic modulus wasobtained with 2.7 kPa standard deviation.

Crosslinks Between Alginate and Polyacrylamide

As mentioned above, the stress-stretch curves of the hybrid gelsindicate that both alginate and polyacrylamide bear loads. The mechanismof load-transfer between the two types of polymers is unclear. Toinvestigate possible crosslinks between the two types of polymers, theFourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra of the alginate gel,polyacrylamide gel, and hybrid gel was analyzed. Samples of the samethickness (≈100 μm) were prepared for the alginate gel, thepolyacrylamide gel, and the alginate-acrylamide hybrid gel. They werefrozen at −20° C. and dried in vacuum chamber for 2 days to eliminatewater molecules from the samples. FTIR spectra were recorded between4000 and 400 cm⁻¹ on a Nicolet 360 FTIR E.S.P. spectrometer.

The FTIR spectra of the three gels are shown in FIG. 19B. The alginategel showed a broad peak near 3400 cm⁻¹ for O—H stretching, one sharppeak at 1620 cm⁻¹ for asymmetric COO— stretching, two peaks at 1420 and1320 cm⁻¹ for C—H deformation with secondary alcohols, and three peaksat 1120, 1090, and 1030 cm⁻¹ for asymmetric C—O—C stretching, C—Ostretching in CH—OH structure, and symmetric C—O stretching in C—O—Cstructure, respectively. The polyacrylamide gel exhibited bands at 3360cm⁻¹ and 3200 cm⁻¹, corresponding to a stretching vibration of N—H, andat 1670 cm⁻¹ for C═O stretching. The bands at 1620 cm⁻¹ (N—H deformationfor primary amine), 1450 cm⁻¹ (CH₂ in-plane scissoring), 1420 cm⁻¹ (C—Nstretching for primary amide), 1350 cm⁻¹ (C—H deformation), and 1120cm⁻¹ (NH₂ in-plane rocking) were also detected. The spectra of thehybrid gel were characterized by comparing the presence of theabsorption bands with the pure components. In the spectra of the hybridgel, a new peak at 1280 cm⁻¹ for C—N stretching of secondary amide wascreated. Furthermore, the intensity of the absorption bands (1620, 1420cm⁻¹) which are related with primary amide, and the intensity of NH₂in-plane rocking peak (1120 cm⁻¹) were decreased. Moreover, theintensities of O—H stretching peak (3400 cm⁻¹), C—O stretching in CH—OHstructure (1090 cm⁻¹), and symmetric C—O stretching in C—O—C structure(1030 cm⁻¹) were decreased. This result indicates new bonds formedbetween —NH₂ groups of polyacrylamide and carboxyl groups of alginate.

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

To confirm the two gel networks were covalently coupled, the thermaldegradation of the alginate, polyacrylamide, and alginate-polyacrylamidehybrid gels were studied using TGA Q5000 (TA Instruments), under anitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of 10° C./min. Samples werescanned from 40 to 750° C. Alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gel with thepolymer ratio 1:6 of alginate to acrylamide was used for this test. Gelsamples were frozen at −80° C. and dried in vacuum for a week, then thegels were ground with a mortar. Samples ranging between 4 and 8 mg inweight were tested in platinum pans.

The integral results from the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) are shownin FIG. 20A, while the differential thermogravimetric data (DTG) arereported in FIG. 20B, for alginate, polyacrylamide, andalginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels. DTG data were deduced from TGA databy the derivative of the weight loss percent with respect to time. Eachpeak in DTG curves represents the temperature where the degradation rateis maximum for each degradation stage in the whole process. It was foundthat alginate has two pyrolysis stages, the first thermal degradationprocess occurred in the temperature range 225-300° C. The weight loss infirst stage is attributed to the degradation of the carboxyl group, asCO₂ is released. The second stage occurred in the range 650-740° C., andis attributed to the depolymerization of polymer and formation of acarbonaceous residue, and finally yields CaCO₃ as char. The thermaldegradation of polyacrylamide occurs in three pyrolysis stages. In thetemperature range 230-330° C., one ammonia molecule is liberated forevery two amide groups, resulting in the formation of imide.Subsequently, thermal degradation of imides and breaking of the polymerbackbone occurs as the second and third stages. Alginate-Polyacrylamidehybrid gel clearly shows three pyrolysis stages instead of the fivestages which would result from the sum of the individual materials.Moreover, the locations of the second and third stages of hybrid gel areshifted from the locations of the single networks. Complete chemicalanalysis from the degradation of hybrid gels is difficult. However, bycomparing the trend with previous graft interpenetrating polymers, thereduced number of pyrolysis stages and shifted peak locations of DTGqualitatively support the formation of new covalent bonds betweenalginate and polyacrylamide.

Energy-Dissipating Mechanisms in Three Types of Gels

When a notched gel is stretched, the deformation is inhomogeneous: thepolymer chains directly ahead of the notch are stretched more than thechains elsewhere (FIGS. 21A-C). For the notch in the polyacrylamide gelto turn into a running crack, only the chains directly ahead of thenotch need to break. For the notch in the alginate gel to turn into arunning crack, only the network directly ahead of the notch need tounzip. In either case, the gel is notch-sensitive because energydissipates over a highly localized region: only a tiny fraction of thechains in the network—those crossing the crack plane—participate inenergy dissipation. By contrast, in the hybrid gel, the number of chainsthat participate in energy dissipation is dramatically increased. Forthe notch in the hybrid gel to turn into a running crack, the chainsdirectly ahead of the notch need to break. But before these chainsbreak, the alginate network unzips over a large zone around the root ofnotch. This is likely the result of the efficient energy transferbetween the two networks, due to their direct coupling, that results inalginate chains in a large zone being subjected to stress.

Determination of Fracture Energy

The fracture energy of a gel was determined using a method introduced byRivlin and Thomas (Rivlin et al., 1953, J. Polym. Sci. 10, 291-318). Toadapt the method to measure the fracture energy of an extremelystretchable gel, two samples of the same gel were separately pulled(FIGS. 22A-B). One sample was unnotched, and the other sample wasnotched. In the initial state when the gel was undeformed, each samplewas of width a_(o)=75 mm and thickness b_(o)=3 mm, and the distancebetween the two clamps was L_(o)=5 mm. The unnotched sample was pulledto measure the force-length curve. (To determine the fracture energy, itwas unnecessary to pull the unnotched sample all the way to rupture.)When the two clamps were pulled to a distance L, the area beneath theforce-length curve gave the work done by the applied force, U(L). Thenotched sample was prepared by using a razor blade to cut into the gel a40 mm-long notch. (The precise length of the notch was unimportant forthis test.) The notched sample was pulled, and pictures were taken at arate of ˜30 frames/sec to record the critical distance between theclamps, L_(c), when the notch turned into a running crack. The fractureenergy was calculated from

$\Gamma = {\frac{U\left( L_{c} \right)}{a_{o}b_{o}}.}$

This method was verified with two other methods: the tensile test withmultiple samples containing notches of various lengths, and thedouble-peeling test. Although the notch turned into a running crack whenthe sample was pulled to a huge length, the fracture energy determinedby all three methods matched well. Even though the entire sampleunderwent inelastic deformation, the method is still expected to yield avalid test for fracture energy. The situation is similar to testing veryductile metals under large-scale yielding conditions (Begley et al.,1972, The J integral as a fracture criterion. Fracture Toughness,Proceedings of the 1971 National Symposium on Fracture Mechanics, PartII, ASTM STP 514, American Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 1-20).

Tensile Test with Samples of Various Crack Lengths

The pure-shear test was verified with two other tests: tensile test withsamples of various crack lengths and double peeling test.Alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels with 1:8 polymer ratio, 0.0006 MBAAconcentration, 0.1328 CaSO₄ concentration, and 86.4 wt. % waterconcentration were used for this verification.

First, tensile tests with various initial crack sizes were used toobtain fracture energy. Samples with dimensions L_(o)=5 mm, a_(o)=75 mmand b_(o)=3 mm were prepared with various crack lengths, C. Theconfiguration of the test is the same as shown in FIGS. 22A-B.Force-extension curves were obtained until the onset of crackpropagation occurred. L is the change in distance between the clamps.The total energy U stored in the test piece at

$\left( \frac{\partial U}{\partial C} \right)_{L}$deformation L is obtained by measuring the area under theforce-extension curve and U is plotted with the crack lengths, C asshown in FIGS. 23A-B. A suitable L value is selected in a way that itcorresponds to L of at least one fractured sample. is calculated fromthe slope of the total energy vs crack length curve. Thus the fractureenergy is given by,

$\Gamma = {{- \frac{1}{b_{o}}}\left( \frac{\partial U}{\partial C} \right)_{L}}$Using this method with L=76 mm, the fracture energy obtained is 7155±400J/m² which is comparable with the value 7350 J/m² which is obtained fromthe pure-shear test.Double Peeling Test

In order to verify the pure-shear test for extremely stretchy materials,we also used the double peeling test introduced by Rivlin and Thomas(Rivlin et al., 1953, J. Polym. Sci. 10, 291-318). Samples withdimensions D=15 mm, a_(o)=80 mm and thickness b_(o)=3 mm were preparedwith various crack lengths, C as shown in the schematic view in FIG.24A. To prevent the elongation of the arm of sample during stretching,200 μm thick polyimide films were glued on both side of sample as shownin FIG. 24B. Force-extension curves are obtained until the onset ofcrack propagation for various crack lengths as indicated FIG. 24C. Thetotal energy U stored in the test piece at deformation L is obtained bymeasuring the area under the force-extension curve and U is plotted withthe crack lengths C as shown in FIG. 24D. A suitable L is selected as150 mm and

$\left( \frac{\partial U}{\partial C} \right)_{L}$is calculated from me slope of the total energy vs crack length curve.Fracture energy obtained from this method is 7981±803 J/m² which iscomparable with the value of 7350 J/m² obtained from the Rivlin-Thomaspure shear test.Crack Length Effect

The effect of the initial crack length was investigated with variouscrack lengths. We prepared and tested samples of initial crack sizeC/a_(o)=0-0.93. The initial sample length L_(o)=5 mm, width a_(o)=75 mm,and thickness b_(o)=3 mm were fixed for these tests.Alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gels with 1:8 polymer ratio, 0.0006 MBAAconcentration, 0.1328 CaSO₄ concentration, and 86.4 wt. % waterconcentration were used for these tests. Stress-stretch curves weremeasured with a various crack length until the crack propagationoccurred as shown in FIG. 25A. The onset crack propagation criticalstretches were collected with various crack lengths and plotted in FIG.25B. The critical stretches do not vary much by initial crack lengths inthe range of C/a_(o)<0.8. However, the critical stretch decreased toless than half of its value when the ligament length reaches less than10% of the whole sample width. Fracture energy is calculated and plottedin FIG. 25C as a function of crack lengths. As a result, we obtained aconsistent fracture energy within the range of C/a_(o)<0.8.

Sample Size Effect

To ascertain that the fracture energy is independent of sample size, weprepared and tested samples of initial lengths L_(o)=2-20 mm (FIG.22A-B). The smallest sample, L_(o)=2 mm was limited by our experimentalsetup. The initial sample width a_(o)=75 mm, thickness b_(o)=3 mm, andnotch size C≈0.5a_(o) were fixed for these tests. While the criticalstretch decreased with the sample size, the fracture energy remainednearly a constant. Even though the entire sample underwent inelasticdeformation, the method yielded a valid test for fracture energy. Thesituation is similar to testing very ductile metals under large-scaleyielding conditions as described above. This experiment indicates thatthe intrinsic length scale associated with fracture energy is below theminimum sample size used here, L_(o)=2 mm. Alginate-polyacrylamidehybrid gels with 1:8 polymer ratio, 0.0006 MBAA concentration, 0.1328CaSO₄ concentration, and 86.4 wt. % water concentration were used forthese tests.

Example 3: Highly Stretchable and Tough Hydrogels

Extremely stretchable and tough hydrogels were made by mixing two typesof crosslinked polymers: ionically crosslinked alginate and covalentlycrosslinked polyacrylamide (FIG. 27). An alginate chain consists ofmannuronic acid (M unit) and guluronic acid (G unit), arranged in blocksrich in G units, blocks rich in M units, and blocks of alternating G andM units. In an aqueous solution, the G blocks on different alginatechains form ionic crosslinks through divalent cations (e.g., Ca²⁺),resulting in a network in water—an alginate hydrogel. By contrast, in apolyacrylamide hydrogel, the polyacrylamide chains form a network bycovalent crosslinks. Powders of alginate (FMC Biopolymer, LF 20/40) andacrylamide (Sigma, A8887) were dissolved in deionized water. Unlessotherwise stated, the water content was fixed at 86 wt %. Ammoniumpersulfate (AP; Sigma, A9164) was added as a photo initiator forpolyacrylamide, and N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA; Sigma, M7279) wasadded as the crosslinker for polyacrylamide. After degassing thesolution in a vacuum chamber, N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine(TEMED; Sigma, T7024), 0.0025 the weight of acrylamide, was added as thecrosslinking accelerator for polyacrylamide. Calcium sulfate slurry(CaSO4.2H2O; Sigma, 31221) was added as the ionic crosslinker foralginate. The solution was poured into a glass mold, 75.0×150.0×3.0 mm³,covered with a 3-mm thick glass plate. The gel was cured in one stepwith ultraviolet light (Hoefer, UVC 500) for 1 hour, with 8 W power and254 nm wavelength at 50° C. The gel was then left in a humid box for 1day to stabilize the reactions. After curing, the gel was taken out ofthe humid box, and water on the surfaces of the gel was removed with N₂gas for 1 minute.

The gel was glued to two clamps made of polystyrene, resulting inspecimens of 75.0×5.0×3.0 mm³. All mechanical tests were performed inair, at room temperature, using a tensile machine (Instron model 3342)with a 500-N load cell. In both loading and unloading, the rate ofstretch was kept constant at 2 per minute. An alginate-polyacrylamidehybrid gel was stretched over 20 times its original length withoutrupture (FIG. 1A,B). The hybrid gel was also extremelynotch-insensitive. When a notch was cut into the gel (FIG. 1C) and thenpulled the gel to a stretch of 17, the notch was dramatically bluntedand remained stable (FIG. 1D). At a critical applied stretch, a crackinitiated at the front of the notch, and ran rapidly through the entiresample. Large, recoverable deformation was demonstrated by dropping ametal ball on a membrane of the gel fixed by circular clamps. Uponhitting the membrane, the ball stretched the membrane greatly and thenbounced back. The membrane remained intact, vibrated, and recovered itsinitial flat configuration after the vibration was damped out.

The extremely stretchable hybrid gels are even more remarkable whencompared with their parents: the alginate gel and the polyacrylamide gel(FIGS. 28A-C). The amounts of alginate and acrylamide in the hybrid gelswere kept the same as those in the alginate gel and polyacrylamide gel,respectively. When the stretch was small, the elastic modulus of thehybrid gel was 29 kPa, which was close to the sum of the elastic modulusof the alginate gel (17 kPa) and that of the polyacrylamide gel (8 kPa).The stress and the stretch at rupture were, respectively, 156 kPa and 23for the hybrid gel, 3.7 kPa and 1.2 for the alginate gel, and 11 kPa and6.6 for the polyacrylamide gel. That is, the properties at rupture ofthe hybrid gel far exceeded those of either of its parents.

Hybrid gels dissipate energy effectively, as shown by pronouncedhysteresis. The area between the loading and unloading curves of a gelgave the energy dissipated per unit volume. The alginate gel exhibitedpronounced hysteresis and retained significant permanent deformationafter unloading. In contrast, the polyacrylamide gel showed negligiblehysteresis, and the sample fully recovered its original length afterunloading. The hybrid gel also showed pronounced hysteresis, but thepermanent deformation after unloading was significantly smaller thanthat of the alginate gel. The pronounced hysteresis and relatively smallpermanent deformation of the hybrid gel were further demonstrated byloading several samples to large values of stretch before unloading.

After the first loading and unloading, the hybrid gel was much weaker ifthe second loading was applied immediately, and recovered somewhat ifthe second loading was applied 1 day later (FIG. 28D). A sample of thehybrid gel was loaded to a stretch of 7, and then unloaded the gel tozero force. The sample was then sealed in a polyethylene bag andsubmerged in mineral oil to prevent water from evaporation, and storedin a bath of a fixed temperature for a certain period of time. Thesample was taken out of the storage and its stress-stretch curve wasmeasured again at room temperature. The internal damage was much betterhealed by storing the gel at an elevated temperature for some timebefore reloading (FIG. 28E). After storing at 80° C. for 1 day, the workon reloading was recovered to 74% of that of the first loading (FIG.28F).

Gels of various proportions of alginate and acrylamide were prepared tostudy why the hybrids were much more stretchable and stronger thaneither of their parent compositions. When the proportion of acrylamidewas increased, the elastic modulus of the hybrid gel was reduced (FIG.29A). However, the critical stretch at rupture reached the maximum whenacrylamide was 89 wt.-%. A similar trend was observed for samples withnotches (FIG. 29C). The fracture energy reached a maximum value of 8700J/m² when acrylamide was 86 wt.-% (FIG. 28D). The densities of ionic andcovalent crosslinks also strongly affect the mechanical behavior of thehybrid gels, as well as that of pure alginate gels and purepolyacrylamide gels.

The mechanisms of deformation and energy dissipation are discussedbelow. When an unnotched hybrid gel is subject to a small stretch, theelastic modulus of the hybrid gel is nearly the sum of that of thealginate gel and that of the polyacrylamide gel. This behavior isfurther ascertained by viscoelastic moduli determined for the hybrid andpure gels. Thus, in the hybrid gel the alginate and the polyacrylamidechains both bear loads. Moreover, alginate is finely dispersed in thehybrid gel homogeneously, as demonstrated by using fluorescent alginateand by measuring local elastic modulus with atomic force microscopy. Theload sharing of the two networks may be achieved by entanglements of thepolymers, and by possible covalent crosslinks formed between the aminegroups on polyacrylamide chains and the carboxyl groups on alginatechains. As the stretch increases, the alginate network unzipsprogressively, while the polyacrylamide network remains intact, so thatthe hybrid gel exhibits pronounced hysteresis and little permanentdeformation. Since only the ionic crosslinks are broken, and thealginate chains themselves remain intact, the ionic crosslinks canreform, leading to the healing of the internal damage.

The giant fracture energy of the hybrid gel is remarkable, consideringthat its parents—the alginate gel and polyacrylamide gel—have fractureenergies in the range of 10-250 J/m². The relatively low fracture energyof a hydrogel of a single network with covalent crosslinks is understoodin terms of the Lake-Thomas model (Lake et al., 1967, Proc. R. Soc. A300, 108-119). When the gel contains a notch and is stretched, thedeformation is inhomogeneous: the network directly ahead the notch isstretched more than elsewhere. For the notch to turn into a runningcrack, only the chains directly ahead the notch needs to break. Once achain breaks, the energy stored in the entire chain is dissipated. Inthe ionically crosslinked alginate, fracture proceeds by unzipping ioniccrosslinks and pulling out chains. After one pair of G blocks unzip, thehigh stress shifts to the neighboring pair of G blocks and causes themto unzip also. For the notch in the alginate gel to turn into a runningcrack, only the alginate chains crossing the crack plane need to unzip,leaving the network elsewhere intact. In both polyacrylamide gel andalginate gel, rupture results from localized damage, leading to smallfracture energies.

When a notched hybrid gel is stretched, the polyacrylamide networkbridges the crack and stabilizes deformation, enabling the alginatenetwork to unzip over a large region of the gel. The unzipping of thealginate network, in its turn, reduces the stress concentration of thepolyacrylamide network ahead the notch. The model highlights the synergyof the two toughening mechanisms: crack bridging and backgroundhysteresis.

The fracture energy of the alginate-polyacrylamide hybrid gel, however,is much larger than previously reported values of tough synthetic gels(100-1000 J/m²), a finding which is attributed to how the alginatenetwork unzips. Each alginate chain contains a large number of G blocks,many of which form ionic crosslinks with G blocks on other chains whenenough Ca⁺⁺ ions are present. When the hybrid gel is stretched, thepolyacrylamide network remains intact and stabilizes the deformation,while the alginate network unzips progressively, with closely spacedionic crosslinks unzipping at a small stretch, followed by more and morewidely spaced ionic crosslinks unzipping as the stretch increases.

Because of the large magnitude of the fracture energy and the pronouncedblunting of the notches, a large number of experiments were run todetermine the fracture energy, using three types of specimens, as wellas changing the size of the specimens. The experiments showed that themeasured fracture energy is independent of the shape and size of thespecimens. The data indicate that the fracture energy of hydrogels canbe dramatically enhanced by combining weak and strong crosslinks. Thecombination of relatively high stiffness, high toughness andrecoverability of stiffness and toughness, along with an easy method ofsynthesis, make these materials an ideal candidate for tissueengineering as well as other clinical and non-clinical, e.g.,industrial, uses.

Example 4: Biocompatibility/Degradation

In order to assess the potential of the hydrogel material for biomedicalapplications, in vitro cytotoxicity and biocompatibility were examined,as well as degradation of the material in a cell culture environment. Asdescribed in detail below, live/dead staining, a WST cytotoxicity assay,and proliferation study were performed to examine the biocompatibility.All assays were performed using the mouse mesenchymal stem cell line D1.Compression testing was performed to examine mechanical degradation overtime in cell culture conditions.

Biocompatibility Tests

Two different schemes were used to examine biocompatibility: 1)cumulative, and 2) snapshot. The general paradigm is to condition cellculture media by soaking gels in the media for various time points andthen assaying the biocompatibility of the gels.

Scheme 1: In this scheme, hybrid gels were prepared using the techniquesdescribed above in two different crosslinking densities. Polyacrylamide(PAAM) and alginate gels were also prepared as controls, using the samewt % polymer as in the hybrid gels. Before testing, these gels werewashed 3× in serum-free DMEM (Lonza). At time zero, three circular gels(3 mm thick, 8 mm diameter) per time point were placed in 25 mL completecell culture media (DMEM, 10% Fetal Bovine Serum, 1%penicillin/streptomycin) and were placed in cell culture conditions (37°C., 5% CO₂). At the time points of interest, the gels were removed fromthe media, which was then frozen. After all time points were completed,the media was thawed and used as the cell culture media for the assaysto follow, described below. Hence, this scheme examined potentialcumulative release or degradation.

Scheme 2: In this scheme, gels were prepared using the techniquesdescribed above. Polyacrylamide (PAAM) and alginate gels were alsoprepared as controls, using the same wt % polymer as in the hybrid gels.Before testing, these gels were washed 3× in serum-free DMEM (Lonza). Attime zero, fifteen circular gels (3 mm thick, 8 mm diameter) per timepoint were placed in 35 mL complete cell culture media (DMEM, 10% FetalBovine Serum, 1% penicillin/streptomycin) and were placed in cellculture conditions (37° C., 5% CO₂). At the time points of interest,three gels were removed from the media, and were transferred to 25 mLfresh complete media for three days, which was then frozen. After alltime points were completed, the media was thawed and used as the cellculture media for the assays to follow, described below. Hence, thisscheme examined “snapshots” of potential cumulative release ordegradation.

WST Assay

The WST Cell Proliferation Assay kit is used for quantification of cellproliferation and viability. The assay is based on the cleavage of thetetrazolium salt WST-1 to formazan by cellular mitochondrialdehydrogenases. Expansion in the number of viable cells results in anincrease in the overall activity of the mitochondrial dehydrogenases inthe sample. The augmentation in enzyme activity leads to the increase inthe amount of formazan dye formed. The formazan dye produced by viablecells can be quantified by a multiwell spectrophotometer (microplatereader) by measuring the absorbance of the dye solution at 440 nm. Theassay can be used for the measurement of cell proliferation in responseto growth factors, cytokines, mitogens and nutrients. It can also beused for the analysis of cytotoxic compounds.

As the WST Assay measures a cell's mitochondrial activity and metabolichealth, this assay determines cytotoxicity. For the conditioned mediacollected via both schemes described above, the WST assay (Millipore)was performed per the manufacturer's instructions after seeding 5000 D1cells/well in 100 μL complete culture media for 8 hours before changingto 100 μL conditioned media for 72 hours prior to the assay.Subsequently, the plates were read measuring absorbance at 450 nm usinga BioTek plate reader. Results for the WST Assay for scheme 1 and scheme2 are shown in FIGS. 30 and 31, respectively. Little or no cytotoxicitywas observed using IPN hydrogels with low and optimal crosslinking. Asshown in FIGS. 30 and 31, the conditioned media was not cytotoxic to thecells examined. The cytotoxicity profile of the IPN hydrogels wassimilar to the profile of alginate, which is generally regarded asnon-toxic and biocompatible.

Proliferation Assay

In 24 well-plates, D1 cells were seeded at 5000 cells/well in 500 μLcomplete media and allowed to adhere for 6 hours in standard cellculture conditions. Media was changed to conditioned media from bothschemes, and after 72 hours, cells were counted using a Coulter Counter(Beckman Coulter). Results for the Proliferation Assay for scheme 1 andscheme 2 are shown in FIGS. 32 and 33, respectively, and report the cellcount normalized by the initial seeding number.

Live/Dead Staining

For the 50 day time point in scheme 2, cells were cultured exactly as inthe proliferation assay. However, instead of counting, live/deadstaining was performed using the Live/Dead Kit (Life Technologies) perthe manufacturer's instructions. Fluorescence images were acquired using488 nm and 514 nm excitation channels. Results for the Live/Dead Imagesfor are given in FIG. 34. As shown in FIG. 34, media conditioned withthe hybrid gels was not more cytotoxic to cells than the control.

Thus, data from the live/dead staining, proliferation, and WST assaysindicated that IPN hydrogels are biocompatible and suitable for clinicaluse.

Degradation/Compression Tests

Gels were soaked for various times as described in Scheme 1. Uponremoval from the media, gels were subjected to compression tests using amechanical testing apparatus (Instron), with a 50N load cell and acompressive strain rate of 1 mm/min. From these tests, the Young'sModulus was calculated. Results for Young's Modulus as a function ofsoaking time are given in FIG. 35.

In many applications, the use of hydrogels has often been severelylimited by their mechanical properties. For example, the poor mechanicalstability of hydrogels used for cell encapsulation often leads tounintended cell release and death, and low toughness limits thedurability of contact lenses. The tough hydrogel compositions describedherein overcome many of the drawbacks of earlier hydrogels. Hydrogels ofsuperior stiffness, toughness, stretchability and recoverability lead toimproved performance in these applications, and open up new areas ofapplication for this class of materials.

Effect of Gel Curing Temperature on Gel Fracture Toughness

The fracture toughness of polyacrylamide-alginate hybrid hydrogels wasexamined with various curing temperatures (FIG. 36). Acrylamide-alginatewater solutions were poured in 5 mm thick glass molds and placed on topof hot plate. The gels were cured by ultraviolet light for 1 hour with afixed hot plate temperature. The weight ratio of alginate to acrylamidewas fixed at 1:10, and the water content was fixed at 86 wt %. The ioniccrosslinker, CaSO₄, was fixed at 0.2657 the weight of alginate. Thecovalent crosslinker, MBAA, was fixed at 0.0006 the weight ofacrylamide. As shown in FIG. 36, a hot plate temperature of about 50° C.and about 70° C. resulted in a gel fracture toughness of about 1750 J/m²and 1625 J/m², respectively. Thus, allowing the hydrogels to cure at anincreased temperature results in an increase in fracture toughness

Chemical Bonds Between Two Networks

One mechanism for the development of covalent chemical bonds between twonetworks involves linking between carboxylic acid (COOH) on alginatechains and amide (NH₂) on the acrylamide network (Sun et al., 2012Nature, 6; 489(7414):133-6, incorporated herein by reference).

Another mechanism of covalent bond formation between two networksinvolves alginate degradation. At pH ˜6.6, some alginate chains degradeby beta-elimination, producing shorter chains and unsaturated uronicunits, which might have resonance forms and has been well-presented inliterature (Tsujino I and Saito T, 1961 Nature, (9)192:970-1; Haug A andSmidsrød 0, 1965 Acta Chemica Scandinavica, 19: 341-351; Leo et al.,1990 Biotechnol Prog, 6 (1): 51-53, each of which is incorporated hereinby reference). Under UV, unsaturated uronic units can react withacrylamide by free radical polymerization, thus forming chemical bondsbetween two networks (FIG. 37).

As described above, thermal treatment promotes covalent bond formationbetween the acrylamide network and the alginate network.

Other Embodiments

While the invention has been described in conjunction with the detaileddescription thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrateand not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scopeof the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications arewithin the scope of the following claims.

The patent and scientific literature referred to herein establishes theknowledge that is available to those with skill in the art. All UnitedStates patents and published or unpublished United States patentapplications cited herein are incorporated by reference. All publishedforeign patents and patent applications cited herein are herebyincorporated by reference. Genbank and NCBI submissions indicated byaccession number cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference. Allother published references, documents, manuscripts and scientificliterature cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference.

While this invention has been particularly shown and described withreferences to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood bythose skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may bemade therein without departing from the scope of the inventionencompassed by the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. An interpenetrating networks hydrogel comprisinga first network and a second network, wherein: the first networkcomprises a covalently crosslinked polymer selected from the groupconsisting of polyacrylamide, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(ethylene oxide)and its copolymers, polyethylene glycol (PEG), methacrylated PEG, andpolyphosphazene; and the second network comprises an ionicallycrosslinked polymer selected from the group consisting of alginate,chitosan, and agarose; wherein the first network and the second networkare covalently coupled; wherein the hydrogel has a Young's modulus valueof at least 300 kPa.
 2. The hydrogel of claim 1, wherein the firstnetwork comprises polyacrylamide or polyethylene glycol (PEG) andwherein the second network comprises alginate.
 3. The hydrogel of claim1, wherein the first network comprises a covalent crosslinking agent isselected from the group consisting of N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA),a methacrylate crosslinker, N,N′-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC),1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (ECC),N-hydroxysuccinimide, N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide, glutaraldehyde, and atransglutaminase.
 4. The hydrogel of claim 1, wherein the hydrogel has afracture toughness value of at least 10 J/m².
 5. The hydrogel of claim1, wherein the hydrogel has a stretch value (λ) of from 2 to
 25. 6. Thehydrogel of claim 1, wherein the second network comprises an ioniccrosslinking agent is selected from the group consisting of CaCl₂,CaSO₄, CaCO₃, hyaluronic acid, and polylysine.
 7. An interpenetratingnetworks hydrogel comprising a first network and a second network,wherein: the first network comprises a covalently crosslinked polymerselected from the group consisting of polyacrylamide, poly(vinylalcohol), poly(ethylene oxide) and its copolymers, polyethylene glycol(PEG), methacrylated PEG, and polyphosphazene; and the second networkcomprises an ionically crosslinked polymer selected from the groupconsisting of alginate, chitosan, and agarose; and the hydrogel has acovalently crosslinked polymer/(covalently crosslinked polymer andionically crosslinked polymer) ratio of between about 66.67 wt. % and94.12 wt. % based on monomer weights, wherein the first network and thesecond network are covalently coupled.
 8. The hydrogel of claim 7,wherein the first network comprises polyacrylamide or polyethyleneglycol (PEG) and wherein the second network comprises alginate.
 9. Thehydrogel of claim 7, wherein the first network comprises a covalentcrosslinking agent selected from the group consisting ofN,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA), a methacrylate crosslinker,N,N′-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC),1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (ECC),N-hydroxysuccinimide, N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide, glutaraldehyde, and atransglutaminase.
 10. The hydrogel of claim 7, wherein the secondnetwork comprises an ionic crosslinking agent selected from the groupconsisting of CaCl₂, CaSO₄, CaCO₃, hyaluronic acid, and polylysine. 11.The hydrogel of claim 7, wherein the first network comprises a covalentcrosslinking agent that is N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA) and thesecond network comprises an ionic crosslinking agent that is CaSO₄. 12.The hydrogel of claim 7, wherein the hydrogel has a covalentlycrosslinked polymer/(covalently crosslinked polymer and ionicallycrosslinked polymer) ratio of between about 80 wt. % and 92.31 wt. %based on monomer weights.